list2-第17章

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distinction　is　apparent　in　reference　to　all　political　communities；



whether　these　comprise　a　whole　nation　or　merely　fractions　of　a



nation；　and　whether　they　are　small　or　large。



　　　　In　a　confederated　State；　the　financial　economy　of　the　State　is



again　divided　into　the　financial　economy　of　the　separate　states　and



the　financial　economy　of　the　entire　union。



　　　　The　economy　of　the　people　becomes　identical　with　national



economy　where　the　State　or　the　confederated　State　embraces　a　whole



nation　fitted　for　independence　by　the　number　of　its　population；　the



extent　of　its　territory；　by　its　political　institutions；



civilisation；　wealth；　and　power；　and　thus　fitted　for　stability　and



political　influence。　The　economy　of　the　people　and　national　economy



are；　under　these　circumstances；　one　and　the　same。　They　constitute



with　the　financial　economy　of　the　State　the　political　economy　of



the　nation。



　　　　But；　on　the　other　hand；　in　States　whose　population　and



territory　merely　consist　of　the　fraction　of　a　nation　or　of　a



national　territory；　which　neither　by　complete　and　direct　union；　nor



by　means　of　a　federal　union　with　other　fractions；　constitutes　a



whole；　we　can　only　take　into　consideration　an　'economy　of　the



people'　which　is　directly　opposed　to　'private　economy'　or　to



'financial　economy　of　the　State。'



　　　　In　such　an　imperfect　political　condition；　the　objects　and



requirements　of　a　great　nationality　cannot　be　taken　into



consideration；　especially　is　it　impossible　to　regulate　the　economy



of　the　people　with　reference　to　the　development　of　a　nation



complete　in　itself；　and　with　a　view　to　its　independence；



permanence；　and　power。　Here　politics　must　necessarily　remain



excluded　from　economy；　here　can　one　only　take　account　of　the



natural　laws　of　social　economy；　as　these　would　develop　and　shape



themselves　if　no　large　united　nationality　or　national　economy



existed　anywhere。



　　　　It　is　from　this　standpoint　that　that　science　has　been



cultivated　in　Germany　which　was　formerly　called　'State



administration；'　then　'national　economy；'　then　'political　economy；'



then　'popular　administration；'　without　anyone　having　clearly



apprehended　the　fundamental　error　of　these　systems。



　　　　The　true　conception　and　real　character　of　national　economy



could　not　be　recognised　because　no　economically　united　nation　was



in　existence；　and　because　for　the　distinct　and　definite　term



'nation'　men　had　everywhere　substituted　the　general　and　vague　term



'society'；　an　idea　which　is　as　applicable　to　entire　humanity；　or　to



a　small　country；　or　to　a　single　town；　as　to　the　nation。







Chapter　17







The　Manufacturing　Power　and　the　Personal；　Social；　and　Political



Productive　Powers　of　the　Nation







　　　　In　a　country　devoted　to　mere　raw　agriculture；　dullness　of　mind；



awkwardness　of　body；　obstinate　adherence　to　old　notions；　customs；



methods；　and　processes；　want　of　culture；　of　prosperity；　and　of



liberty　prevail。　The　spirit　of　striving　for　a　steady　increase　in



mental　and　bodily　acquirements；　of　emulation；　and　of　liberty；



characterise；　on　the　contrary；　a　State　devoted　to　manufactures　and



commerce。



　　　　The　cause　of　this　difference　lies　partly　in　the　different　kind



of　social　habits　and　of　education　which　respectively　characterise



these　two　classes　of　people；　partly　in　the　different　character　of



their　occupation　and　in　the　things　which　are　requisite　for　it。　The



agricultural　population　lives　dispersed　over　the　whole　surface　of



the　country；　and　also；　in　respect　to　mental　and　material



intercourse；　agriculturists　are　widely　separated　from　one　another。



One　agriculturist　does　almost　precisely　what　the　other　does；　the



one　produces；　as　a　rule；　what　the　other　produces。　The　surplus



produce　and　the　requirements　of　all　are　almost　alike；　everybody　is



himself　the　best　consumer　of　his　own　products；　here；　therefore；



little　inducement　exists　for　mental　intercourse　or　material



exchange。　The　agriculturist　has　to　deal　less　with　his　fellow…men



than　with　inanimate　nature。　Accustomed　to　reap　only　after　a　long



lapse　of　time　where　he　has　sown；　and　to　leave　the　success　of　his



exertions　to　the　will　of　a　higher　power；　contentment　with　little；



patience；　resignation；　but　also　negligence　and　mental　laziness；



become　to　him　a　second　nature。　As　his　occupation　keeps　him　apart



from　intercourse　with　his　fellow…men；　so　also　does　the　conduct　of



his　ordinary　business　require　but　little　mental　exertion　and　bodily



skill　on　his　part。　He　learns　it　by　imitation　in　the　narrow　circle



of　the　family　in　which　he　was　born；　and　the　idea　that　it　might　be



conducted　differently　and　better　seldom　occurs　to　him。　From　the



cradle　to　the　grave　he　moves　always　in　the　same　limited　circle　of



men　and　of　circumstances。　Examples　of　special　prosperity　in



consequence　of　extraordinary　mental　and　bodily　exertions　are　seldom



brought　before　his　eyes。　The　possession　of　means　or　a　state　of



poverty　are　transmitted　by　inheritance　in　the　occupation　of　mere



agriculture　from　generation　to　generation；　and　almost　all　that



power　which　originates　in　emulation　lies　dead。



　　　　The　nature　of　manufactures　is　fundamentally　different　from　that



of　agriculture。　Drawn　towards　one　another　by　their　business；



manufacturers　live　only　in　society；　and　consequently　only　in



commercial　intercourse　and　by　means　of　that　intercourse。　The



manufacturer　procures　from　the　market　all　that　he　requires　of　the



necessaries　of　life　and　raw　materials；　and　only　the　smallest　part



of　his　own　products　is　destined　for　his　own　consumption。　If　the



agriculturist　expects　a　blessing　on　his　exertions　chiefly　from



nature；　the　prosperity　and　existence　of　the　manufacturer　mainly



depend　on　his　commercial　intercourse。　While　the　agriculturist　does



not　know　the　purchasers　of　his　produce；　or　at　any　rate　need　have



little　anxiety　as　to　disposing　of　it；　the　very　existence　of　the



manufacturer　depends　on　his　customers。　The　prices　of　raw　materials；



of　the　necessaries　of　life　and　wages；　of　goods　and　of　money；　vary



incessantly；　the　manufacturer　is　never　certain　how　his　profits　will



turn　out。　The　favour　of　nature　and　mere　ordinary　industry　do　not



guarantee　to　him　existence　and　prosperity　as　they　do　to　the



agriculturist；　both　these　depend　entirely　upon　his　own　intelligence



and　activity。　He　must　strive　to　gain　more　than　enough　in　order　to



be　certain　of　having　enough　of　what　is　absolutely　necessary；　he



must　endeavour　to　become　rich　in　order　not　to　be　reduced　to



poverty。　If　he　goes　on　somewhat　faster　than　others；　he　thrives；　if



he　goes　slower；　he　is　certain　of　ruin。　He　must　always　buy　and　sell；



exchange　and　make　bargains。　Everywhere　he　has　to　deal　with　men；



with　changing　circumstances；　with　laws　and　regulations；　he　has　a



hundred　times　more　opportunity　for　developing　his　mind　than　the



agriculturist。　In　order　to　qualify　himself　for　conducting　his



business；　he　must　become　acquainted　with　foreign　men　and　foreign



countries；　in　order　to　establish　that　business；　he　must　make



unusual　efforts；　While　the　agriculturist　simply　has　to　do　with　his



own　neighbourhood；　the　trade　of　the　manufacturer　extends　itself



over　all　countries　and　parts　of　the　world。　The　desire　to　gain　the



respect　of　his　fellow…citizens　or　to　retain　it；　and　the　continual



competition　of　his　rivals；　which　perpetually　threaten　his　existence



and　prosperity；　are　to　him　a　sharp　stimulus　to　uninterrupted



activity；　to　ceaseless　progress。　Thousands　of　examples　prove　to



him；　that　by　extraordinary　performances　and　exertions　it　is



possible　for　a　man　to　raise　himself　from　the　lowest　degree　of



well…being　and　position　to　the　highest　social　rank；　but　that；　on



the　other　hand；　by　mental　inactivity　and　negligence；　he　can　sink



from　the　most　respectable　to　the　meanest　position。　These



circumstances　produce　in　the　manufacturer　an　energy　which　is　not



observable　in　the　mere　agriculturist。



　　　　If　we　regard　manufacturing　occupations　as　a　whole；　it　must　be



evident　at　the　first　glance　that　they　develop　and　bring　into　action



an　incomparably　greater　variety　and　higher　type　of　mental　qualities



and　abilities　than　agriculture　does。　Adam　Smith　certainly　expressed



one　of　those　paradoxical　opinions　which　（according　to　Dugald



Stewart；　his　biographer）　he　was　very　fond　of；　when　he　maintained



that　agriculture　requires　more　skill　than　manufactures　and



commerce。　Without　entering　into　the　investigation　whether　the



construction　of　a　clock　requires　more　skill　than　the　management　of



a　farm；　we　have　merely　to　observe　that　all　agricultural　occupations



are　of　the　same　kind；　while　in　manufactures　a　thousand　fold　variety



exists。　It　must　also　not　be　forgotten；　that　for　the　purpose　of　the



present　comparison；　agriculture　must　be　regarded　as　it　exists　in



the　primitive　state；　and　not　as　it　has　been　improved　by　the



influence　of　manufactures。　If　the　condition　of　English



agriculturists　appeared　to　Adam　Smith　much　nobler　than　the



condition　of　English　manufacturers；　he　had　forgotten　that　the



condition　of　the　former　has　been　thus　ennobled　through　the



influence　of　manufactures　and　commerce。



　　　　It　is　evident　that　by　agriculture　merely　personal　qualities　of



the　same　kind　are　put　into　requisition；　and　merely　those　which



combine　bodily　power　and　perseverance　in　executing　raw　and　manual



labour　with　the　simple　idea　of　order；　while　manufactures　require　a



thousand　fold　variety　of　mental　ability　skill；　and　experience。　The



demand　for　such　a　variety　of　talents　makes　it　easy　for　every



individual　in　a　manufacturing　State　to　find　an　occupation　and



vocation　corresponding　with　his　individual　abilities　and　taste；



while　in　an　agricultural　State　but　little　choice　exists。　In　the



former　mental　gifts　are　infinitely　more　prized　than　in　the　latter；



where　as　a　rule　the　usefulness　of　a　man　is　determined　according　to



his　bodily　strength。　The　labour　of　the　weak　and　the　cripple　in　the



former　is　not　unfrequently　valued　at　a　much　higher　rate　than　that



of　the　strongest　man　is　in　the　latter。　Every　power；　even　the



smallest；　that　of　children　and　women；　of　cripples　and　old　men；



finds　in　manufactures　employment　and　remuneration。



　　　　Manufactures　are　at　once　the　offspring；　and　at　the　same　time



the　supporters　and　the　nurses；　of　science　and　the　arts。　We　may



observe　how　little　the　condition　of　raw　agriculture　puts　sciences



and　arts　into　requisition；　how　little　of　either　is　necessary　to