list2-第3章

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human　race　for　the　creation　of　the　means　of　subsistence。　In　the



Middle　Ages　the　yield　of　wheat　of　an　acre　of　land　in　England　was



fourfold；　to…day　it　is　ten　to　twenty　fold；　and　in　addition　to　that



five　times　more　land　is　cultivated。　In　many　European　countries　（the



soil　of　which　possesses　the　same　natural　fertility　as　that　of



England）　the　yield　at　present　does　not　exceed　fourfold。　Who　will



venture　to　set　further　limits　to　the　discoveries；　inventions；　and



improvements　of　the　human　race？　Agricultural　chemistry　is　still　in



its　infancy；　who　can　tell　that　to…morrow；　by　means　of　a　new



invention　or　discovery；　the　produce　of　the　soil　may　not　be



increased　five　or　ten　fold？　We　already　possess；　in　the　artesian



well；　the　means　of　converting　unfertile　wastes　into　rich　corn



fields；　and　what　unknown　forces　may　not　yet　be　hidden　in　the



interior　of　the　earth？　Let　us　merely　suppose　that　through　a　new



discovery　we　were　enabled　to　produce　heat　everywhere　very　cheaply



and　without　the　aid　of　the　fuels　at　present　known：　what　spaces　of



land　could　thus　be　utilised　for　cultivation；　and　in　what　an



incalculable　degree　w　ould　the　yield　of　a　given　area　of　land　be



increased？　If　Malthus'　doctrine　appears　to　us　in　its　tendency



narrow…minded；　it　is　also　in　the　methods　by　which　it　could　act　an



unnatural　one；　which　destroys　morality　and　power；　and　is　simply



horrible。　It　seeks　to　destroy　a　desire　which　nature　uses　as　the



most　active　means　for　inciting　men　to　exert　body　and　mind；　and　to



awaken　and　support　their　nobler　feelings　　a　desire　to　which



humanity　for　the　greater　part　owes　its　progress。　It　would　elevate



the　most　heartless　egotism　to　the　position　of　a　law；　it　requires　us



to　close　our　hearts　against　the　starving　man；　because　if　we　hand



him　food　and　drink；　another　might　starve　in　his　place　in　thirty



years'　time。　It　substitutes　cold　calculation　for　sympathy。　This



doctrine　tends　to　convert　the　hearts　of　men　into　stones。　But　what



could　be　finally　expected　of　a　nation　whose　citizens　should　carry



stones　instead　of　hearts　in　their　bosoms？　What　else　than　the　total



destruction　of　all　morality；　and　with　it　of　all　productive　forces；



and　therefore　of　all　the　wealth；　civilisation；　and　power　of　the



nation？



　　　　If　in　a　nation　the　population　increases　more　than　the



production　of　the　means　of　subsistence；　if　capital　accumulates　at



length　to　such　an　extent　as　no　longer　to　find　investment；　if



machinery　throws　a　number　of　operatives　out　of　work　and



manufactured　goods　accumulate　to　a　large　excess；　this　merely



proves；　that　nature　will　not　allow　industry；　civilisation；　wealth；



and　power　to　fall　exclusively　to　the　lot　of　a　single　nation；　or



that　a　large　portion　of　the　globe　suitable　for　cultivation　should



be　merely　inhabited　by　wild　animals；　and　that　the　largest　portion



of　the　human　race　should　remain　sunk　in　savagery；　ignorance；　and



poverty。



　　　　We　have　shown　into　what　errors　the　school　has　fallen　by　judging



the　productive　forces　of　the　human　race　from　a　political　point　of



view；　we　have　now　also　to　point　out　the　mistakes　which　it　has



committed　by　regarding　the　separate　interests　of　nations　from　a



cosmopolitical　point　of　view。



　　　　If　a　confederation　of　all　nations　existed　in　reality；　as　is　the



case　with　the　separate　states　constituting　the　Union　of　North



America；　the　excess　of　population；　talents；　skilled　abilities；　and



material　capital　would　flow　over　from　England　to　the　Continental



states；　in　a　similar　manner　to　that　in　which　it　travels　from　the



eastern　states　of　the　American　Union　to　the　western；　provided　that



in　the　Continental　states　the　same　security　for　persons　and



property；　the　same　constitution　and　general　laws　prevailed；　and



that　the　English　Government　was　made　subject　to　the　united　will　of



the　universal　confederation。　Under　these　suppositions　there　would



be　no　better　way　of　raising　all　these　countries　to　the　same　stage



of　wealth　and　cultivation　as　England　than　free　trade。　This　is　the



argument　of　the　school。　But　how　would　it　tally　with　the　actual



operation　of　free　trade　under　the　existing　conditions　of　the　world？



　　　　The　Britons　as　an　independent　and　separate　nation　would



henceforth　take　their　national　interest　as　the　sole　guide　of　their



policy。　The　Englishman；　from　predilection　for　his　language；　for　his



laws；　regulations；　and　habits；　would　whenever　it　was　possible



devote　his　powers　and　his　capital　to　develop　his　own　native



industry；　for　which　the　system　of　free　trade；　by　extending　the



market　for　English　manufactures　over　all　countries；　would　offer　him



sufficient　opportunity；　he　would　not　readily　take　a　fancy　to



establish　manufactures　in　France　or　Germany。　All　excess　of　capital



in　England　would　be　at　once　devoted　to　trading　with　foreign　parts



of　the　world。　If　the　Englishman　took　it　into　his　head　to　emigrate；



or　to　invest　his　capital　elsewhere　than　in　England；　he　would　as　he



now　does　prefer　those　more　distant　countries　where　he　would　find



already　existing　his　language；　his　laws；　and　regulations；　rather



than　the　benighted　countries　of　the　Continent。　All　England　would



thus　be　developed　into　one　immense　manufacturing　city。　Asia；



Africa；　and　Australia　would　be　civilised　by　England；　and　covered



with　new　states　modelled　after　the　English　fashion。　In　time　a　world



of　English　states　would　be　formed；　under　the　presidency　of　the



mother　state；　in　which　the　European　Continental　nations　would　be



lost　as　unimportant；　unproductive　races。　By　this　arrangement　it



would　fall　to　the　lot　of　France；　together　with　Spain　and　Portugal；



to　supply　this　English　world　with　the　choicest　wines；　and　to　drink



the　bad　ones　herself：　at　most　France　might　retain　the　manufacture



of　a　little　millinery。　Germany　would　scarcely　have　more　to　supply



this　English　world　with　than　children's　toys；　wooden　clocks；　and



philological　writings；　and　sometimes　also　an　auxiliary　corps；　who



might　sacrifice　themselves　to　pine　away　in　the　deserts　of　Asia　or



Africa；　for　the　sake　of　extending　the　manufacturing　and　commercial



supremacy；　the　literature　and　language　of　England。　It　would　not



require　many　centuries　before　people　in　this　English　world　would



think　and　speak　of　the　Germans　and　French　in　the　same　tone　as　we



speak　at　present　of　the　Asiatic　nations。



　　　　True　political　science；　however；　regards　such　a　result　of



universal　free　trade　as　a　very　unnatural　one；　it　will　argue　that



had　universal　free　trade　been　introduced　at　the　time　of　the



Hanseatic　League；　the　German　nationality　instead　of　the　English



would　have　secured　an　advance　in　commerce　and　manufacture　over　all



other　countries。



　　　　It　would　be　most　unjust；　even　on　cosmopolitical　grounds；　now　to



resign　to　the　English　all　the　wealth　and　power　of　the　earth；　merely



because　by　them　the　political　system　of　commerce　was　first



established　and　the　cosmopolitical　principle　for　the　most　part



ignored。　In　order　to　allow　freedom　of　trade　to　operate　naturally；



the　less　advanced　nations　must　first　be　raised　by　artificial



measures　to　that　stage　of　cultivation　to　which　the　English　nation



has　been　artificially　elevated。　In　order　that；　through　that



cosmopolitical　tendency　of　the　powers　of　production　to　which　we



have　alluded；　the　more　distant　parts　of　the　world　may　not　be



benefited　and　enriched　before　the　neighbouring　European　countries；



those　nations　which　feel　themselves　to　be　capable；　owing　to　their



moral；　intellectual；　social；　and　political　circumstances；　of



developing　a　manufacturing　power　of　their　own　must　adopt　the　system



of　protection　as　the　most　effectual　means　for　this　purpose。　The



effects　of　this　system　for　the　purpose　in　view　are　of　two　kinds：　in



the　first　place；　by　gradually　excluding　foreign　manufactured



articles　from　our　markets；　a　surplus　would　be　occasioned　in　foreign



nations；　of　workmen；　talents；　and　capital；　which　must　seek



employment　abroad；　and　secondly　by　the　premium　which　our　system　of



protection　would　offer　to　the　immigration　into　our　country　of



workmen；　talents；　and　capital；　that　excess　of　productive　power



would　be　induced　to　find　employment　with　us；　instead　of　emigrating



to　distant　parts　of　the　world　and　to　colonies。　Political　science



refers　to　history；　and　inquires　whether　England　has　not　in　former



times　drawn　from　Germany；　Italy；　Holland；　France；　Spain；　and



Portugal　by　these　means　a　mass　of　proDuctive　power。　She　asks：　Why



does　the　cosmopolitical　school；　when　it　pretends　to　weigh　in　the



balance　the　advantages　and　the　disadvantages　of　the　system　of



protection；　utterly　ignore　this　great　and　remarkable　instance　of



the　results　of　that　system？







NOTES：







1。　It　is　alleged　that　Adam　Smith　intended　to　have　dedicated　his



great　work　to　Quesnay。　　TR。　（See　Life　of　Smith；　published　by　T。



and　J。　Allman。　1825。）







2。　The　Christian　religion　inculcates　perpetual　peace。　But　until　the



promise；　'There　shall　be　one　fold　and　one　shepherd；'　has　been



fulfilled；　the　principle　of　the　Quakers；　however　true　it　be　in



itself；　can　scarcely　be　acted　upon。　There　is　no　better　proof　for



the　Divine　origin　of　the　Christian　religion　than　that　its　doctrines



and　promises　are　in　perfect　agreement　with　the　demands　of　both　the



material　and　spiritual　well…being　of　the　human　race。







3。　This　statement　was　probably　accurate　up　to　the　period　when　List



wrote；　but　a　notable　exception　to　it　may　now　be　adduced。　The



commercial　union　of　the　various　German　states　under　the　Zollverein



preceded　by　many　years　their　political　union　under　the　Empire；　and



powerfully　promoted　it。　　TR。







Chapter　12







The　Theory　of　the　Powers　of　Production　and　the　Theory　of　Values







　　　　Adam　Smith's　celebrated　work　is　entitled；　'The　Nature　and



Causes　of　the　Wealth　of　Nations。'　The　founder　of　the　prevailing



economical　school　has　therein　indicated　the　double　point　of　view



from　which　the　economy　of　nations；　like　that　of　private　separate



individuals；　should　be　regarded。



　　　　The　causes　of　wealth　are　something　totally　different　from



wealth　itself。　A　person　may　possess　wealth；　i。e。　exchangeable



value；　if；　however；　he　does　not　possess　the　power　of　producing



objects　of　more　value　than　he　consumes；　he　will　become　poorer。　A



person　may　be　poor；　if　he；　however；　possesses　the　power　of



producing　a　larger　amount　of　valuable　articles　than　he　consumes；　he



becomes　rich。



　　　　The　power　of　producing　wealth　is　therefo