list2-第38章

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Egyptians　　that　the　son　must　continue　to　follow　the　trade　or



profession　of　his　father。　Before　the　invention　and　general



dissemination　of　printing　took　place；　these　regulations　may　have



appeared　to　be　indispensable　for　the　maintenance　and　for　the



development　of　arts　and　trades。



　　　　Guilds　and　trade　societies　also　have　partly　originated　from



this　consideration。　For　the　maintenance　and　bringing　to　perfection



of　the　arts　and　sciences；　and　their　transfer　from　one　generation　to



another；　we　are　in　great　measure　indebted　to　the　priestly　castes　of



ancient　nations；　to　the　monasteries　and　universities。



　　　　What　power　and　what　influence　have　the　orders　of　priesthood　and



orders　of　knights；　as　well　as　the　papal　chair；　attained　to；　by　the



fact　that　for　centuries　they　have　aspired　to　one　and　the　same　aim；



and　that　each　successive　generation　has　always　continued　to　work



where　the　other　had　left　off。



　　　　The　importance　of　this　principle　becomes　still　more　evident　in



respect　to　material　achievements。



　　　　Individual　cities；　monasteries；　and　corporations　have　erected



works　the　total　cost　of　which　perhaps　surpassed　the　value　of　their



whole　property　at　the　time。　They　could　only　obtain　the　means　for



this　by　successive　generations　devoting　their　savings　to　one　and



the　same　great　purpose。



　　　　Let　us　consider　the　canal　and　dyke　system　of　Holland；　it



comprises　the　labours　and　savings　of　many　generations。　Only　to　a



series　of　generations　is　it　possible　to　complete　systems　of



national　transport　or　a　complete　system　of　fortifications　and



defensive　works。



　　　　The　system　of　State　credit　is　one　of　the　finest　creations　of



more　recent　statesmanship；　and　a　blessing　for　nations；　inasmuch　as



it　serves　as　the　means　of　dividing　among　several　generations　the



costs　of　those　achievements　and　exertions　of　the　present　generation



which　are　calculated　to　benefit　the　nationality　for　all　future



times；　and　which　guarantee　to　it　continued　existence；　growth；



greatness；　power；　and　increase　of　the　powers　of　production；　it



becomes　a　curse　only　if　it　serves　for　useless　national　expenditure；



and　thus　not　merely　does　not　further　the　progress　of　future



generations；　but　deprives　them　beforehand　of　the　means　of



undertaking　great　national　works；　or　also　if　the　burden　of　the



payment　of　interest　of　the　national　debt　is　thrown　on　the



consumptions　of　the　working　classes　instead　of　on　capital。



　　　　State　debts　are　bills　which　the　present　generation　draws　on



future　ones。　This　can　take　place　either　to　the　special　advantage　of



the　present　generation　or　the　special　advantage　of　the　future　one；



or　to　the　common　advantage　of　both。　In　the　first　case　only　is　this



system　an　objectionable　one。　But　all　cases　in　which　the　object　in



view　is　the　maintenance　and　promotion　of　the　greatness　and　welfare



of　the　nationality；　so　far　as　the　means　required　for　the　purpose



surpass　the　powers　of　the　present　generation；　belong　to　the　last



category。



　　　　No　expenditure　of　the　present　generation　is　so　decidedly　and



specially　profitable　to　future　generations　as　that　for　the



improvement　of　the　means　of　transport；　especially　because　such



undertakings　as　a　rule；　besides　increasing　the　powers　of　production



of　future　generations；　do　also　in　a　constantly　increasing　ratio　not



merely　pay　interest　on　the　cost　in　the　course　of　time；　but　also



yield　dividends。　The　present　generation　is；　therefore；　not　merely



entitled　to　throw　on　to　future　generations　the　capital　outlay　of



these　works　and　fair　interest　on　it　（as　long　as　they　do　not　yield



sufficient　income）；　but　further　acts　unjustly　towards　itself　and　to



the　true　fundamental　principles　of　national　economy；　if　it　takes



the　burden　or　even　any　considerable　part　of　it　on　its　own



shoulders。



　　　　If　in　our　consideration　of　the　subject　of　the　continuity　of



national　industry　we　revert　to　the　main　branches　which　constitute



it；　we　may　perceive；　that　while　this　continuity　has　an　important



influence　on　agriculture；　yet　that　interruptions　to　it；　in　the　case



of　that　industry；　are　much　less　decided　and　much　less　injurious



when　they　occur；　also　that　their　evil　consequences　can　be　much　more



easily　and　quickly　made　good　than　in　the　case　of　manufactures。



　　　　However　great　may　be　any　damage　or　interruption　to　agriculture；



the　actual　personal　requirements　and　consumption　of　the



agriculturist；　the　general　diffusion　of　the　skill　and　knowledge



required　for　agriculture；　and　the　simplicity　of　its　operations　and



of　the　implements　which　it　requires；　suffice　to　prevent　it　from



coming　entirely　to　an　end。



　　　　Even　after　devastations　by　war　it　quickly　raises　itself　up



again。　Neither　the　enemy　nor　the　foreign　competitor　can　take　away



the　main　instrument　of　agriculture；　the　land；　and　it　needs　the



oppressions　of　a　series　of　generations　to　convert　arable　fields



into　uncultivated　waste；　or　to　deprive　the　inhabitants　of　a　country



of　the　capability　of　carrying　on　agriculture。



　　　　On　manufactures；　however；　the　least　and　briefest　interruption



has　a　crippling　effect；　a　longer　one　is　fatal。　The　more　art　and



talent　that　any　branch　of　manufacture　requires；　the　larger　the



amounts　of　capital　which　are　needful　to　carry　it　on；　the　more



completely　this　capital　is　sunk　in　the　special　branch　of　industry



in　which　it　has　been　invested；　so　much　the　more　detrimental　will　be



the　interruption。　By　it　machinery　and　tools　are　reduced　to　the



value　of　old　iron　and　fire…wood；　the　buildings　become　ruins；　the



workmen　and　skilled　artificers　emigrate　to　other　lands　or　seek



subsistence　in　agricultural　employment。　Thus　in　a　short　time　a



complex　combination　of　productive　powers　and　of　property　becomes



lost；　which　had　been　created　only　by　the　exertions　and　endeavours



of　several　generations。



　　　　Just　as　by　the　establishment　and　continuance　of　industry　one



branch　of　trade　originates；　draws　after　it；　supports　and　causes　to



flourish　many　others；　so　is　the　ruin　of　one　branch　of　industry



always　the　forerunner　of　the　ruin　of　several　others；　and　finally　of



the　chief　foundations　of　the　manufacturing　power　of　the　nation。



　　　　The　conviction　of　the　great　effects　produced　by　the　steady



continuation　of　industry　and　of　the　irretrievable　injuries　caused



by　its　interruption；　and　not　the　clamour　and　egotistical　demands　of



manufacturers　and　traders　for　special　privileges；　has　led　to　the



idea　of　protective　duties　for　native　industry。



　　　　In　cases　where　the　protective　duty　cannot　help；　where　the



manufactories；　for　instance；　suffer　from　want　of　export　trade；



where　the　Government　is　unable　to　provide　any　remedy　for　its



interruption；　we　often　see　manufacturers　continuing　to　produce　at



an　actual　loss。　They　want　to　avert；　in　expectation　of　better　times；



the　irrecoverable　injury　which　they　would　suffer　from　a　stoppage　of



their　works。



　　　　By　free　competition　it　is　often　hoped　to　oblige　the　competitor



to　discontinue　work　which　has　compelled　the　manufacturer　or



merchant　to　sell　his　products　under　their　legitimate　price　and



often　at　an　actual　loss。　The　object　is　not　merely　to　prevent　the



interruption　of　our　own　industry；　but　also　to　force　others　to



discontinue　theirs　in　the　hope　later　on　of　being　able　by　better



prices　to　recoup　the　losses　which　have　been　suffered。



　　　　In　any　case　striving　after　monopoly　forms　part　of　the　very



nature　of　manufacturing　industry。　This　circumstance　tends　to



justify　and　not　to　discredit　a　protective　policy；　for　this



striving；　when　restricted　in　its　operation　to　the　home　market；



tends　to　promote　cheaper　prices　and　improvements　in　the　art　of



production；　and　thus　increases　the　national　prosperity；　while　the



same　thing；　in　case　it　presses　from　without　with　overwhelming　force



on　the　internal　industry；　will　occasion　the　interruption　of　work



and　downfall　of　the　internal　national　industry。



　　　　The　circumstance　that　there　are　no　limits　to　manufacturing



production　（especially　since　it　has　been　so　extraordinarily　aided



and　promoted　by　machinery）　except　the　limits　of　the　capital　which



it　possesses　and　its　means　of　effecting　sales；　enables　that



particular　nation　whose　manufacturing　industry　has　continued　for　a



century；　which　has　accumulated　immense　capitals；　extended　its



commerce　all　over　the　world；　dominated　the　money　market　by　means　of



large　institutions　of　credit　（whose　operations　are　able　to　depress



the　prices　of　fabrics　and　to　induce　merchants　to　export）；　to



declare　a　war　of　extermination　against　the　manufacturers　of　all



other　countries。　Under　such　circumstances　it　is　quite　impossible



that　in　other　nations；　'in　the　natural　course　of　things'　（as　Adam



Smith　expresses　himself）；　merely　in　consequence　of　their　progress



in　agriculture；　immense　manufactures　and　works　should　be



established；　or　that　those　manufactures　which　have　originated　in



consequence　of　the　commercial　interruptions　caused　by　war　should　be



able；　'in　the　natural　course　of　things；'　to　continue　to　maintain



themselves。　The　reason　for　this　is　the　same　as　that　why　a　child　or



a　boy　in　wrestling　with　a　strong　man　can　scarcely　be　victorious　or



even　offer　steady　resistance。　The　manufactories　which　constitute



the　commercial　and　industrial　supremacy　（of　England）　have　a



thousand　advantages　over　the　newly　born　or　half…grown　manufactories



of　other　nations。　The　former；　for　instance；　can　obtain　skilled　and



experienced　workmen　in　the　greatest　number　and　at　the　cheapest



wages；　the　best　technical　men　and　foremen；　the　most　perfect　and　the



cheapest　machinery；　the　greatest　benefit　in　buying　and　selling



advantageously；　further；　the　cheapest　means　of　transport；　as



respects　raw　materials　and　also　in　respect　of　transporting　goods



when　sold；　more　extended　credit　for　the　manufacturers　with　banks



and　money　institutions　at　the　lowest　rates　of　interest；　greater



commercial　experience；　better　tools；　buildings；　arrangements；



connections；　such　as　can　only　be　acquired　and　established　in　the



course　of　generations；　an　enormous　home　market；　and；　what　is



equally　good；　a　colonial　market　equally　enormous。　Hence　under　all



circumstances　the　English　manufacturers　can　feel　certainty　as　to



the　sale　of　large　quantities　of　manufactured　products　by　vigorous



efforts；　and　consequently　possess　a　guarantee　for　the　continuance



of　their　business　and　abundant　means　to　sell　on　credit　for　years　to



come　in　the　future；　if　it　is　required　to　acquire　the