the expression of emotion in man and animals-第20章
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（fig。 9）； when feeling savage and not terrified。 She assumes a crouching attitude and occasionally protrudes her fore…feet； with the claws exserted ready for striking。 The tail is extended； being curled or lashed from side to side。 The hair is not erectedat least it was not so in the few cases observed by me。 The ears are drawn closely backwards and the teeth are shown。 Low savage growls are uttered。 We can understand why the attitude assumed by a cat when preparing to fight with another cat； or in any way greatly irritated； is so widely different from that of a dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions； for the cat uses her fore…feet for striking； and this renders a crouching position convenient or necessary。 She is also much more accustomed than a dog to lie concealed and suddenly spring on her prey。 No cause can be assigned with certainty for the tail being lashed or curled from side to side。 This habit is common to many other animalsfor instance； to the puma； when prepared to spring；＇1＇ but it is not common to dogs； or to foxes； as I infer from Mr。 St。 John's account of a fox lying in wait and seizing a hare。 We have already seen that some kinds of lizards and various snakes； when excited； rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails。 It would appear as if； under strong excitement； there existed an uncontrollable desire for movement of some kind； owing to nerve…force being freely liberated from the excited sensorium； and that as the tail is left free； and as its movement does not disturb the general position of the body； it is curled or lashed about。
All the movements of a cat； when feeling affectionate； are in complete antithesis to those just described。 She now stands upright； with slightly arched back； tail perpendicularly raised； and ears erected； and she rubs her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress。 The desire to rub something is so strong in cats under this state of mind； that they may often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs of chairs or tables； or against door…posts。 This manner of expressing affection probably originated through association； as in the case of dogs； from the mother nursing and fondling her young； and perhaps from the young themselves loving each other and playing together。 Another and very different gesture； expressive of pleasure； has already been described； namely； the curious manner in which young and even old cats； when pleased； alternately protrude their fore…feet； with separated toes； as if pushing against and sucking their mother's teats。 This habit is so far analogous to that of rubbing against something； that both apparently are derived from actions performed during the nursing period。 Why cats should show affection by rubbing so much more than do dogs； though the latter delight in contact with their masters； and why cats only occasionally lick the hands of their friends； whilst dogs always do so； I cannot say。 Cats cleanse themselves by licking their own coats more regularly than do dogs。 On the other hand； their tongues seem less well fitted for the work than the longer and more flexible tongues of dogs。
＇1＇ Azara； ‘Quadrupedes du Paraquay；' 1801； tom。 1。 p。 136。
Cats； when terrified； stand at full height； and arch their backs in a well…known and ridiculous fashion。 They spit； hiss； or growl。 The hair over the whole body； and especially on the tail； becomes erect。 In the instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright； the terminal part being thrown on one side； but sometimes the tail （see fig。 15） is only a little raised； and is bent almost from the base to one side。 The ears are drawn back； and the teeth exposed。 When two kittens are playing together； the one often thus tries to frighten the other。 From what we have seen in former chapters； all the above points of expression are intelligible； except the extreme arching of the back。 I am inclined to believe that； in the same manner as many birds； whilst they ruffle their feathers； spread out their wings and tail； to make themselves look as big as possible； so cats stand upright at their full height； arch their backs； often raise the basal part of the tail； and erect their hair； for the same purpose。 The lynx； when attacked； is said to arch its back； and is thus figured by Brehm。 But the keepers in the Zoological Gardens have never seen any tendency to this action in the larger feline animals； such as tigers； lions； &c。； and these have little cause to be afraid of any other animal。
Cats use their voices much as a means of expression； and they utter； under various emotions and desires； at least six or seven different sounds。 The purr of satisfaction； which is made during both inspiration and expiration； is one of the most curious。 The puma； cheetah； and ocelot likewise purr； but the tiger； when pleased； 〃emits a peculiar short snuffle； accompanied by the closure of the eyelids。〃＇7＇ It is said that the lion； jaguar； and leopard； do not purr。
_Horses_。Horses when savage draw their ears closely back； protrude their heads； and partially uncover their incisor teeth； ready for biting。 When inclined to kick behind； they generally； through habit； draw back their ears； and their eyes are turned backwards in a peculiar manner。＇8＇ When pleased； as when some coveted food is brought to them in the stable； they raise and draw in their heads； prick their ears； and looking intently towards their friend； often whinny。 Impatience is expressed by pawing the ground。
＇7＇ ‘Land and Water；' 1867； p。 657。 See also Azara on the Puma； in the work above quoted。
＇8＇ Sir C。 Bell； ‘Anatomy of Expression；' 3rd edit。 p。 123。 See also p。 126； on horses not breathing through their mouths； with reference to their distended nostrils。
The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive。 One day my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine； covered by a tarpaulin； and lying on an open field。 He raised his head so high； that his neck became almost perpendicular； and this he did from habit； for the machine lay on a slope below； and could not have been seen with more distinctness through the raising of the head； nor if any sound had proceeded from it； could the sound have been more distinctly heard。 His eyes and ears were directed intently forwards； and I could feel through the saddle the palpitations of his heart。 With red dilated nostrils he snorted violently； and whirling round； would have dashed off at full speed； had I not prevented him。 The distension of the nostrils is not for the sake of scenting the source of danger； for when a horse smells carefully at any object and is not alarmed； he does not dilate his nostrils。 Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat； a horse when panting does not breathe through his open mouth； but through his nostrils； and these consequently have become endowed with great powers of expansion。 This expansion of the nostrils； as well as the snorting； and the palpitations of the heart； are actions which have become firmly associated during a long series of generations with the emotion of terror； for terror has habitually led the horse to the most violent exertion in dashing away at full speed from the cause of danger。
_Ruminants_。Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in so slight a degree their emotions or sensations； excepting that of extreme pain。 A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which be holds his lowered head； with distended nostrils； and by bellowing。 He also often paws the ground； but this pawing seems quite different from that of an impatient horse； for when the soil is loose； he throws up clouds of dust。 I believe that bulls act in this manner when irritated by flies； for the sake of driving them away。 The wilder breeds of sheep and the chamois when startled stamp on the ground； and whistle through their noses； and this serves as a danger…signal to their comrades。 The musk…ox of the Arctic regions； when encountered； likewise stamps on the ground。＇9＇ How this stamping action arose I cannot conjecture； for from inquiries which I have made it does not appear that any of these animals fight with their fore…legs。
Some species of deer； when savage； display far more expression than do cattle； sheep； or goats； for； as has already been stated； they draw back their ears； grind their teeth； erect their hair； squeal； stamp on the ground； and brandish their horns。 One day in the Zoological Gardens； the Formosan deer （_Cervus pseudaxis_） approached me in a curious attitude； with his muzzle raised high up； so that the horns were pressed back on his neck； the head being held rather obliquely。 From the expression of his eye I felt sure that he was savage； he approached slowly； and as soon as he came close to the iron bars； he did not lower his head to butt at me； but suddenly bent it inwards； and struck his horns with great force against the railings。 Mr。 Bartlett informs me that some other species of deer place themselves in the same attitude when enraged。
_Monkeys_。The various species and genera of monkeys express their feelings in many different ways； and this fact is interesting； as in some degree bearing on the question； whether the so…called races of man should be ranked as distinct species or varieties； for； as we shall see in the following chapters； the different races of man express their emotions and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout the world。 Some of the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting in another way； namely from being closely analogous to those of man。 As I have had no opportunity of observing any one species of the group under all circumstances； my miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged under different states of the mind。
＇9＇ ‘Land and Water；' 1869； p。 152。
_Pleasure； joy； affection_It is not possible to distinguish in monkeys； at least without more experience than I have had； the expression of pleasure or joy from that of affection。 Young chimpanzees make a kind of barking noise； when pleased by the return of any one to whom they are attached。 When this noise； which the keepers call a laugh； is uttered； the lips are protruded； but so they are under various other emotions。 Nevertheless I could perceive that when they were pleased the form of the lips differed a little from that assumed when they were angered。 If a young chimpanzee be tickled and the armpits are particularly sensitive to tickling； as in the case of our children；a more decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered； though the laughter is sometimes noiseless。 The corners of the mouth are then drawn backwards； and this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be slightly wrinkled。 But this wrinkling； which is so characteristic of our own laughter； is more plainly seen in some other monkeys。 The teeth in the upper jaw in the chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter their laughing noise； in which respect they differ from us。 But their eyes sparkle and grow brighter； as Mr。 W。 L。 Martin；＇10＇ who has particularly attended to their expression； states。
＇10＇ ‘Natural History of Mammalia；' 1841； vol。 1。 pp。 383； 410。
Young Orangs； when tickled； likewise grin and make a chuckling sound； and Mr。 Martin says that their eyes grow brighter。 As soon as their laughter ceases； an expressi
