the expression of emotion in man and animals-第7章
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when a little older； almost as easily as reflex actions。 Sneezing and coughing； however； can be controlled by the will only partially or not at all； whilst the clearing the throat and blowing the nose are completely under our command。
＇10＇ 〃Dr。 Maudsley； ‘Body and Mind；' 1870； p。 8。
When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating particle in our nostrils or windpipethat is； when the same sensory nerve…cells are excited； as in the case of sneezing and coughing we can voluntarily expel the particle by forcibly driving air through these passages； but we cannot do this with nearly the same force； rapidity； and precision； as by a reflex action。 In this latter case the sensory nerve…cells apparently excite the motor nerve…cells without any waste of power by first communicating with the cerebral hemispheresthe seat of our consciousness and volition。 In all cases there seems to exist a profound antagonism between the same movements； as directed by the will and by a reflex stimulant； in the force with which they are performed and in the facility with which they are excited。 As Claude Bernard asserts； 〃L'influence du cerveau tend donc a entraver les mouvements reflexes； a limiter leur force et leur etendue。〃＇11＇
The conscious wish to perform a reflex action sometimes stops or interrupts its performance； though the proper sensory nerves may be stimulated。 For instance； many years ago I laid a small wager with a dozen young men that they would not sneeze if they took snuff； although they all declared that they invariably did so； accordingly they all took a pinch； but from wishing much to succeed； not one sneezed； though their eyes watered； and all； without exception； had to pay me the wager。 Sir H。 Holland remarks＇12＇ that attention paid to the act of swallowing interferes with the proper movements； from which it probably follows； at least in part； that some persons find it so difficult to swallow a pill。
＇11＇ 〃See the very interesting discussion on the whole subject by Claude Bernard； ‘Tissus Vivants；' 1866； p。 353…356。
＇12＇ ‘Chapters on Mental Physiology；' 1858； p。 85。
Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the involuntary closing of the eyelids when the surface of the eye is touched。 A similar winking movement is caused when a blow is directed towards the face； but this is an habitual and not a strictly reflex action； as the stimulus is conveyed through the mind and not by the excitement of a peripheral nerve。 The whole body and head are generally at the same time drawn suddenly backwards。 These latter movements； however； can be prevented； if the danger does not appear to the imagination imminent； but our reason telling us that there is no danger does not suffice。 I may mention a trifling fact； illustrating this point； and which at the time amused me。 I put my face close to the thick glass…plate in front of a puff…adder in the Zoological Gardens； with the firm determination of not starting back if the snake struck at me； but； as soon as the blow was struck； my resolution went for nothing； and I jumped a yard or two backwards with astonishing rapidity。 My will and reason were powerless against the imagination of a danger which had never been experienced。
The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the vividness of the imagination； and partly on the condition； either habitual or temporary； of the nervous system。 He who will attend to the starting of his horse； when tired and fresh； will perceive how perfect is the gradation from a mere glance at some unexpected object； with a momentary doubt whether it is dangerous； to a jump so rapid and violent； that the animal probably could not voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a manner。 The nervous system of a fresh and highly…fed horse sends its order to the motory system so quickly； that no time is allowed for him to consider whether or not the danger is real。 After one violent start； when he is excited and the blood flows freely through his brain； he is very apt to start again； and so it is； as I have noticed； with young infants。
A start from a sudden noise； when the stimulus is conveyed through the auditory nerves； is always accompanied in grown…up persons by the winking of the eyelids。＇13＇ I observed； however； that though my infants started at sudden sounds； when under a fortnight old； they certainly did not always wink their eyes； and I believe never did so。 The start of an older infant apparently represents a vague catching hold of something to prevent falling。 I shook a pasteboard box close before the eyes of one of my infants； when 114 days old； and it did not in the least wink； but when I put a few comfits into the box； holding it in the same position as before； and rattled them； the child blinked its eyes violently every time； and started a little。 It was obviously impossible that a carefully…guarded infant could have learnt by experience that a rattling sound near its eyes indicated danger to them。 But such experience will have been slowly gained at a later age during a long series of generations； and from what we know of inheritance； there is nothing improbable in the transmission of a habit to the offspring at an earlier age than that at which it was first acquired by the parents。
From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that some actions； which were at first performed consciously； have become through habit and association converted into reflex actions； and are now so firmly fixed and inherited； that they are performed； even when not of the least use；＇14＇ as often as the same causes arise； which originally excited them in us through the volition。 In such cases the sensory nerve…cells excite the motor cells； without first communicating with those cells on which our consciousness and volition depend。 It is probable that sneezing and coughing were originally acquired by the habit of expelling； as violently as possible； any irritating particle from the sensitive air…passages。 As far as time is concerned； there has been more than enough for these habits to have become innate or converted into reflex actions； for they are common to most or all of the higher quadrupeds； and must therefore have been first acquired at a very remote period。 Why the act of clearing the throat is not a reflex action； and has to be learnt by our children； I cannot pretend to say； but we can see why blowing the nose on a handkerchief has to be learnt。
＇13＇ Muller remarks （‘Elements of Physiology；' Eng。 tr。 vol。 ii。 p。 1311） on starting being always accompanied by the closure of the eyelids。
＇14＇ Dr。 Maudsley remarks （‘Body and Mind；' p。 10） that 〃reflex movements which commonly effect a useful end may； under the changed circumstances of disease； do great mischief； becoming even the occasion of violent suffering and of a most painful death。〃
It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless frog； when it wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its thigh； and which movements are so well coordinated for a special purpose； were not at first performed voluntarily； being afterwards rendered easy through long…continued habit so as at last to be performed unconsciously； or independently of the cerebral hemispheres。
So again it appears probable that starting was originally acquired by the habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from danger； whenever any of our senses gave us warning。 Starting； as we have seen； is accompanied by the blinking of the eyelids so as to protect the eyes； the most tender and sensitive organs of the body； and it is； I believe； always accompanied by a sudden and forcible inspiration； which is the natural preparation for any violent effort。 But when a man or horse starts； his heart beats wildly against his ribs； and here it may be truly said we have an organ which has never been under the control of the will； partaking in the general reflex movements of the body。 To this point； however； I shall return in a future chapter。
The contraction of the iris； when the retina is stimulated by a bright light； is another instance of a movement； which it appears cannot possibly have been at first voluntarily performed and then fixed by habit； for the iris is not known to be under the conscious control of the will in any animal。 In such cases some explanation； quite distinct from habit； will have to be discovered。 The radiation of nerve…force from strongly…excited nerve…cells to other connected cells； as in the case of a bright light on the retina causing a sneeze； may perhaps aid us in understanding how some reflex actions originated。 A radiation of nerve…force of this kind； if it caused a movement tending to lessen the primary irritation； as in the case of the contraction of the iris preventing too much light from falling on the retina； might afterwards have been taken advantage of and modified for this special purpose。
It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all probability liable to slight variations； as are all corporeal structures and instincts； and any variations which were beneficial and of sufficient importance； would tend to be preserved and inherited。 Thus reflex actions； when once gained for one purpose； might afterwards be modified independently of the will or habit； so as to serve for some distinct purpose。 Such cases would be parallel with those which； as we have every reason to believe； have occurred with many instincts； for although some instincts have been developed simply through long…continued and inherited habit； other highly complex ones have been developed through the preservation of variations of pre…existing instincts that is； through natural selection。
I have discussed at some little length； though as I am well aware； in a very imperfect manner； the acquirement of reflex actions； because they are often brought into play in connection with movements expressive of our emotions； and it was necessary to show that at least some of them might have been Erst acquired through the will in order to satisfy a desire； or to relieve a disagreeable sensation。
_Associated habitual movements in the lower animals_。 I have already given in the case of Man several instances of movements associated with various states of the mind or body； which are now purposeless； but which were originally of use； and are still of use under certain circumstances。 As this subject is very important for us； I will here give a considerable number of analogous facts； with reference to animals； although many of them are of a very trifling nature。 My object is to show that certain movements were originally performed for a definite end； and that； under nearly the same circumstances； they are still pertinaciously performed through habit when not of the least use。 That the tendency in most of the following cases is inherited； we may infer from such actions being performed in the same manner by all the individuals； young and old； of he same species。 We shall also see that they are excited by the most diversified； often circuitous； and sometimes mistaken associations。
Dogs； when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or other hard surface； generally turn round and round and scratch the ground with their fore…paws in a senseless manner； as if they intended to trample down the grass and scoop out a hollow； as no doubt th
