the expression of emotion in man and animals-第8章

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nseless　manner；　as　if　they　intended　to　trample　down　the　grass　and　scoop　out　a　hollow；　as　no　doubt　their　wild　parents　did；　when　they　lived　on　open　grassy　plains　or　in　the　woods。　　Jackals；　fennecs；　and　other　allied　animals　in　the　Zoological　Gardens；　treat　their　straw　in　this　manner；　but　it　is　a　rather　odd　circumstance　that　the　keepers；　after　observing　for　some　months；　have　never　seen　the　wolves　thus　behave。　A　semi…idiotic　dogand　an　animal　in　this　condition　would　be　particularly　liable　to　follow　a　senseless　habitwas　observed　by　a　friend　to　turn　completely　round　on　a　carpet　thirteen　times　before　going　to　sleep。

Many　carnivorous　animals；　as　they　crawl　towards　their　prey　and　prepare　to　rush　or　spring　on　it；　lower　their　heads　and　crouch；　partly；　as　it　would　appear；　to　hide　themselves；　and　partly　to　get　ready　for　their　rush；　and　this　habit　in　an　exaggerated　form　has　become　hereditary　in　our　pointers　and　setters。　Now　I　have　noticed　scores　of　times　that　when　two　strange　dogs　meet　on　an　open　road；　the　one　which　first　sees　the　other；　though　at　the　distance　of　one　or　two　hundred　yards；　after　the　first　glance　always　lowers　its　bead；　generally　crouches　a　little；　or　even　lies　down；　that　is；　he　takes　the　proper　attitude　for　concealing　himself　and　｛illust。　caption　=　for　making　a　rush　or　FIG。　　4。Small　dog　watching　a　cat　on　a　spring；　although　the　road　table。　From　a　photograph　taken　is　quite　open　and　The　distance　Mr。　Rejlander。｝　great。　Again；　dogs　of　all　kinds　when　intently　watching　and　slowly　approaching　their　prey；　frequently　keep　one　of　their　fore…legs　doubled　up　for　a　long　time；　ready　for　the　next　cautious　step；　and　this　is　eminently　characteristic　of　the　pointer。　　But　from　habit　they　behave　in　exactly　the　same　manner　whenever　their　attention　is　aroused　（fig。　4）。　I　have　seen　a　dog　at　the　foot　of　a　high　wall；　listening　attentively　to　a　sound　on　the　opposite　side；　with　one　leg　doubled　up；　and　in　this　case　there　could　have　been　no　intention　of　making　a　cautious　approach。

Dogs　after　voiding　their　excrement　often　make　with　all　four　feet　a　few　scratches　backwards；　even　on　a　bare　stone　pavement；　as　if　for　the　purpose　of　covering　up　their　excrement　with　earth；　in　nearly　the　same　manner　as　do　cats。　Wolves　and　jackals　behave　in　the　Zoological　Gardens　in　exactly　the　same　manner；　yet；　as　I　am　assured　by　the　keepers；　neither　wolves；　jackals；　nor　foxes；　when　they　have　the　means　of　doing　so；　ever　cover　up　their　excrement；　any　more　than　do　dogs。　All　these　animals；　however；　bury　superfluous　food。　　Hence；　if　we　rightly　understand　the　meaning　of　the　above　cat…like　habit；　of　which　there　can　be　little　doubt；　we　have　a　purposeless　remnant　of　an　habitual　movement；　which　was　originally　followed　by　some　remote　progenitor　of　the　dog…genus　for　a　definite　purpose；　and　which　has　been　retained　for　a　prodigious　length　of　time。

Dogs　and　jackals＇15＇　take　much　pleasure　in　rolling　and　rubbing　their　necks　and　backs　on　carrion。　　The　odour　seems　delightful　to　them；　though　dogs　at　least　do　not　eat　carrion。　Mr。　Bartlett　has　observed　wolves　for　me；　and　has　given　them　carrion；　but　has　never　seen　them　roll　on　it。　　I　have　heard　it　remarked；　and　I　believe　it　to　be　true；　that　the　larger　dogs；　which　are　probably　descended　from　wolves；　do　not　so　often　roll　in　carrion　as　do　smaller　dogs；　which　are　probably　descended　from　jackals。　When　a　piece　of　brown　biscuit　is　offered　to　a　terrier　of　mine　and　she　is　not　hungry　（and　I　have　heard　of　similar　instances）；　she　first　tosses　it　about　and　worries　it；　as　if　it　were　a　rat　or　other　prey；　she　then　repeatedly　rolls　on　it　precisely　as　if　it　were　a　piece　of　carrion；　and　at　last　eats　it。　　It　would　appear　that　an　imaginary　relish　has　to　be　given　to　the　distasteful　morsel；　and　to　effect　this　the　dog　acts　in　his　habitual　manner；　as　if　the　biscuit　was　a　live　animal　or　smelt　like　carrion；　though　he　knows　better　than　we　do　that　this　is　not　the　case。　I　have　seen　this　same　terrier　act　in　the　same　manner　after　killing　a　little　bird　or　mouse。


＇15＇　See　Mr。　F。　H。　Salvin's　account　of　a　tame　jackal　in　‘Land　and　Water；'　October；　1869。

Dogs　scratch　themselves　by　a　rapid　movement　of　one　of　their　hind…feet；　and　when　their　backs　are　rubbed　with　a　stick；　so　strong　is　the　habit；　that　they　cannot　help　rapidly　scratching　the　air　or　the　ground　in　a　useless　and　ludicrous　manner。　　The　terrier　just　alluded　to；　when　thus　scratched　with　a　stick；　will　sometimes　show　her　delight　by　another　habitual　movement；　namely；　by　licking　the　air　as　if　it　were　my　hand。

Horses　scratch　themselves　by　nibbling　those　parts　of　their　bodies　which　they　can　reach　with　their　teeth；　but　more　commonly　one　horse　shows　another　where　he　wants　to　be　scratched；　and　they　then　nibble　each　other。　A　friend　whose　attention　I　had　called　to　the　subject；　observed　that　when　he　rubbed　his　horse's　neck；　the　animal　protruded　his　head；　uncovered　his　teeth；　and　moved　his　jaws；　exactly　as　if　nibbling　another　horse's　neck；　for　he　could　never　have　nibbled　his　own　neck。　If　a　horse　is　much　tickled；　as　when　curry…combed；　his　wish　to　bite　something　becomes　so　intolerably　strong；　that　he　will　clatter　his　teeth　together；　and　though　not　vicious；　bite　his　groom。　At　the　same　time　from　habit　he　closely　depresses　his　ears；　so　as　to　protect　them　from　being　bitten；　as　if　he　were　fighting　with　another　horse。

A　horse　when　eager　to　start　on　a　journey　makes　the　nearest　approach　which　he　can　to　the　habitual　movement　of　progression　by　pawing　the　ground。　Now　when　horses　in　their　stalls　are　about　to　be　fed　and　are　eager　for　their　corn；　they　paw　the　pavement　or　the　straw。　　Two　of　my　horses　thus　behave　when　they　see　or　hear　the　corn　given　to　their　neighbours。　But　here　we　have　what　may　almost　be　called　a　true　expression；　as　pawing　the　ground　is　universally　recognized　as　a　sign　of　eagerness。

Cats　cover　up　their　excrements　of　both　kinds　with　earth；　and　my　grandfather＇17＇｛sic｝　saw　a　kitten　scraping　ashes　over　a　spoonful　of　pure　water　spilt　on　the　hearth；　so　that　here　an　habitual　or　instinctive　action　was　falsely　excited；　not　by　a　previous　act　or　by　odour；　but　by　eyesight。　　It　is　well　known　that　cats　dislike　wetting　their　feet；　owing；　it　is　probable；　to　their　having　aboriginally　inhabited　the　dry　country　of　Egypt；　and　when　they　wet　their　feet　they　shake　them　violently。　My　daughter　poured　some　water　into　a　glass　close　to　the　head　of　a　kitten；　and　it　immediately　shook　its　feet　in　the　usual　manner；　so　that　here　we　have　an　habitual　movement　falsely　excited　by　an　associated　sound　instead　of　by　the　sense　of　touch。

Kittens；　puppies；　young　pigs　and　probably　many　other　young　animals；　alternately　push　with　their　forefeet　against　the　mammary　glands　of　their　mothers；　to　excite　a　freer　secretion　of　milk；　or　to　make　it　flow。　　Now　it　is　very　common　with　young　cats；　and　not　at　all　rare　with　old　cats　of　the　common　and　Persian　breeds　（believed　by　some　naturalists　to　be　specifically　extinct）；　when　comfortably　lying　on　a　warm　shawl　or　other　soft　substance；　to　pound　it　quietly　and　alternately　with　their　fore…feet；　their　toes　being　spread　out　and　claws　slightly　protruded；　precisely　as　when　sucking　their　mother。　　That　it　is　the　same　movement　is　clearly　shown　by　their　often　at　the　same　time　taking　a　bit　of　the　shawl　into　their　mouths　and　sucking　it；　generally　closing　their　eyes　and　purring　from　delight。　This　curious　movement　is　commonly　excited　only　in　association　with　the　sensation　of　a　warm　soft　surface；　but　I　have　seen　an　old　cat；　when　pleased　by　having　its　back　scratched；　pounding　the　air　with　its　feet　in　the　same　manner；　so　that　this　action　has　almost　become　the　expression　of　a　pleasurable　sensation。


＇16＇〃Dr。　Darwin；　‘Zoonomia；'　1794；　vol。　　i。　　p。　　160。　　I　find　that　the　fact　of　cats　protruding　their　feet　when　pleased　is　also　noticed　（p。　151）　in　this　work。

Having　referred　to　the　act　of　sucking；　I　may　add　that　this　complex　movement；　as　well　as　the　alternate　protrusion　of　the　fore…feet；　are　reflex　actions；　for　they　are　performed　if　a　finger　moistened　with　milk　is　placed　in　the　mouth　of　a　puppy；　the　front　part　of　whose　brain　has　been　removed。＇17＇　It　has　recently　been　stated　in　France；　that　the　action　of　sucking　is　excited　solely　through　the　sense　of　smell；　so　that　if　the　olfactory　nerves　of　a　puppy　are　destroyed；　it　never　sucks。　In　like　manner　the　wonderful　power　which　a　chicken　possesses　only　a　few　hours　after　being　hatched；　of　picking　up　small　particles　of　food；　seems　to　be　started　into　action　through　the　sense　of　hearing；　for　with　chickens　hatched　by　artificial　heat；　a　good　observer　found　that　〃making　a　noise　with　the　finger…nail　against　a　board；　in　imitation　of　the　hen…mother；　first　taught　them　to　peck　at　their　meat。〃＇18＇


＇17＇　Carpenter；　‘Principles　of　Comparative　Physiology；'　1854；　p。　　690；　and　Muller's　‘Elements　of　Physiology；'　Eng。　　translat。　　vol。　　ii。　　p。　　936。

＇18＇　Mowbray　on　‘Poultry；'　6th　edit。　　1830；　p。　　54。

I　will　give　only　one　other　instance　of　an　habitual　and　purposeless　movement。　　The　Sheldrake　（_Tadorna_）　feeds　on　the　sands　left　uncovered　by　the　tide；　and　when　a　worm…cast　is　discovered；　〃it　begins　patting　the　ground　with　its　feet；　dancing　as　it　were；　over　the　hole；〃　and　this　makes　the　worm　come　to　the　surface。　Now　Mr。　St。　John　says；　that　when　his　tame　Sheldrakes　〃came　to　ask　for　food；　they　patted　the　ground　in　an　impatient　and　rapid　manner。〃＇19＇　This　therefore　may　almost　be　considered　as　their　expression　of　hunger。　　Mr。　Bartlett　informs　me　that　the　Flamingo　and　the　Kagu　（_Rhinochetus　jubatus_）　when　anxious　to　be　fed；　beat　the　ground　with　their　feet　in　the　same　odd　manner。　So　again　Kingfishers；　when　they　catch　a　fish；　always　beat　it　until　it　is　killed；　and　in　the　Zoological　Gardens　they　always　beat　the　raw　meat；　with　which　they　are　sometimes　fed；　before　devouring　it。


We　have　now；　I　think；　sufficiently　shown　the　truth　of　our　first　Principle；　namely；　that　when　any　sensation；　desire；　dislike；　&c。；　has　led　during　a　long　series　of　generations　to　some　voluntary　movement；　then　a　tendency　to　the　performance　of　a　similar　movement　will　almost　certainly　be　excited；　whenever　the　same；　or　any　analogous　or　associated　sensation　&c。；　although　very　weak；　is　experienced；　notwithstanding　that　the　movement　in　this　case　may　not　be　of　the　least　use。　　Such　habitual　movements　are　often；　or　generally　inherited；　and　they　then　differ　but　little　from　reflex　actions。　When　we　treat　of　the　special　expressions　of　man；　the　latter　part　of　our　first　Principle；　as　given　at　the　commencement　of　this　chapter；　will　be　seen　to　hold　good；　namely；　that　when　movements；　associated　through　habit　with　certain　states　of　the　mind；　are　partially　repressed　by　the　will；　the　strictly　involuntary　muscles；　as　well　as　those　which　are　least　under　the　separate　control　of　the　will；　are　liable　still　to　act；　and　their　action　is　often　highly　expressive。　　Conversely；　when　the　will　is　temporarily　or　permanently　weakened；　the　voluntary　muscles　fail　before　the　involuntary。　　It　is　a　fact　familiar　to　pathologists；　as　Sir　C。　Bell　remarks；＇20＇　〃that　when　debility　arises　from　affection　of　the　brain；　the　influence　is　greatest　on　those　muscles　which　are；　in　their　natural　condition；　most　under　the　command　of　the　will。〃　We　shall；　also；　in　our　future　chapters；　consider　another　proposition　included　in　our　first　Principle；　namely；　that　the　checking　of　one　habitual　movement　sometimes　requires　other　slight　move