the expression of emotion in man and animals-第9章
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t Principle； namely； that the checking of one habitual movement sometimes requires other slight movements； these latter serving as a means of expression。
＇19＇ See the account given by this excellent observer in ‘Wild Sports of the Highlands；' 1846； p。 142。
＇20＇ ‘Philosophical Translations；' 1823； p。 182。
CHAPTER II。
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION_continued_。
The Principle of AntithesisInstances in the dog and cat Origin of the principleConventional signsThe principle of antithesis has not arisen from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite impulses。
WE will now consider our second Principle； that of Antithesis。 Certain states of the mind lead； as we have seen in the last chapter； to certain habitual movements which were primarily； or may still be； of service； and we shall find that when a directly opposite state of mind is induced； there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of a directly opposite nature； though these have never been of any service。 A few striking instances of antithesis will be given； when we treat of the special expressions of man； but as； in these cases； we are particularly liable to confound conventional or artificial gestures and expressions with those which are innate or universal； and which alone deserve to rank as true expressions； I will in the present chapter almost confine myself to the lower animals。
When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a savage or hostile frame of mind be walks upright and very stiffly； his head is slightly raised； or not much lowered； the tail is held erect； and quite rigid； the hairs bristle； especially along the neck and back； the pricked ears are directed forwards； and the eyes have a fixed stare： （see figs。 5 and 7）。 These actions； as will hereafter be explained； follow from the dog's intention to attack his enemy； and are thus to a large extent intelligible。 As he prepares to spring with a savage growl on his enemy； the canine teeth are uncovered； and the ears are pressed close backwards on the head； but with these latter actions； we are not here concerned。 Let us now suppose that the dog suddenly discovers that the man he is approaching； is not a stranger； but his master； and let it be observed how completely and instantaneously his whole bearing is reversed。 Instead of walking upright； the body sinks downwards or even crouches； and is thrown into flexuous movements； his tail； instead of being held stiff and upright； is lowered and wagged from side to side； his hair instantly becomes smooth； his ears are depressed and drawn backwards； but not closely to the head； and his lips hang loosely。 From the drawing back of the ears； the eyelids become elongated； and the eyes no longer appear round and staring。 It should be added that the animal is at such times in an excited condition from joy； and nerve…force will be generated in excess； which naturally leads to action of some kind。 Not one of the above movements； so clearly expressive of affection； are of the least direct service to the animal。 They are explicable； as far as I can see； solely from being in complete opposition or antithesis to the attitude and movements which； from intelligible causes； are assumed when a dog intends to fight； and which consequently are expressive of anger。 I request the reader to look at the four accompanying sketches； which have been given in order to recall vividly the appearance of a dog under these two states of mind。 It is； however； not a little difficult to represent affection in a dog； whilst caressing his master and wagging his tail； as the essence of
the expression lies in the continuous flexuous movements。
We will now turn to the cat。 When this animal is threatened by a dog； it arches its back in a surprising manner； erects its hair； opens its mouth and spits。 But we are not here concerned with this well…known attitude； expressive of terror combined with anger； we are concerned only with that of rage or anger。 This is not often seen； but may be observed when two cats are fighting together； and I have seen it well exhibited by a savage cat whilst plagued by a boy。 The attitude is almost exactly the same as that of a tiger disturbed and growling over its food； which every one must have beheld in menageries。 The animal assumes a crouching position； with the body extended； and the whole tail； or the tip alone； is lashed or curled from side to side。 The hair is not in the least erect。 Thus far； the attitude and movements are nearly the same as when the animal is prepared to spring on its prey； and when； no doubt； it feels savage。 But when preparing to fight； there is this difference； that the ears are closely pressed backwards； the mouth is partially opened； showing the teeth； the fore feet are occasionally struck out with protruded claws； and the animal occasionally utters a fierce growl。 （See figs。 9 and 10。） All； or almost all these actions naturally follow （as hereafter to be explained）； from the cat's manner and intention of attacking its enemy。
Let us now look at a cat in a directly opposite frame of mind； whilst feeling affectionate and caressing her master； and mark how opposite is her attitude in every respect。 She now stands upright with her back slightly arched； which makes the hair appear rather rough； but it does not bristle； her tail； instead of being extended and lashed from side to side； is held quite still and perpendicularly upwards； her ears are erect and pointed； her mouth is closed； and she rubs against her master with a purr instead of a growl。 Let it further be observed how widely different is the whole bearing of an affectionate cat from that of a dog； when with his body crouching and flexuous； his tail lowered and wagging； and ears depressed； he caresses his master。 This contrast in the attitudes and movements of these two carnivorous animals； under the same pleased and affectionate frame of mind； can be explained； as it appears to me； solely by their movements standing in complete antithesis to those which are naturally assumed； when these animals feel savage and are prepared either to fight or to seize their prey。
In these cases of the dog and cat； there is every reason to believe that the gestures both of hostility and affection are innate or inherited； for they are almost identically the same in the different races of the species； and in all the individuals of the same race； both young and old。
I will here give one other instance of antithesis in expression。 I formerly possessed a large dog； who； like every other dog； was much pleased to go out walking。 He showed his pleasure by trotting gravely before me with high steps； head much raised； moderately erected ears； and tail carried aloft but not stiffly。 Not far from my house a path branches off to the right； leading to the hot…house； which I used often to visit for a few moments； to look at my experimental plants。 This was always a great disappointment to the dog； as he did not know whether I should continue my walk； and the instantaneous and complete change of expression which came over him as soon as my body swerved in the least towards the path （and I sometimes tried this as an experiment） was laughable。 His look of dejection was known to every member of the family； and was called his _hot…house face_。 This consisted in the head drooping much； the whole body sinking a little and remaining motionless； the ears and tail falling suddenly down； but the tail was by no means wagged。 With the falling of the ears and of his great chaps； the eyes became much changed in appearance； and I fancied that they looked less bright。 His aspect was that of piteous； hopeless dejection； and it was； as I have said； laughable； as the cause was so slight。 Every detail in his attitude was in complete opposition to his former joyful yet dignified bearing； and can be explained； as it appears to me； in no other way； except through the principle of antithesis。 Had not the change been so instantaneous； I should have attributed it to his lowered spirits affecting； as in the case of man； the nervous system and circulation； and consequently the tone of his whole muscular frame； and this may have been in part the cause。
We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression has arisen。 With social animals； the power of intercommunication between the members of the same community；and with other species； between the opposite sexes； as well as between the young and the old； is of the highest importance to them。 This is generally effected by means of the voice； but it is certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain extent mutually intelligible。 Man not only uses inarticulate cries； gestures； and expressions； but has invented articulate language； if； indeed； the word INVENTED can be applied to a process； completed by innumerable steps； half…consciously made。 Any one who has watched monkeys will not doubt that they perfectly understand each other's gestures and expression； and to a large extent； as Rengger asserts；＇1＇ those of man。 An animal when going to attack another； or when afraid of another； often makes itself appear terrible； by erecting its hair； thus increasing the apparent bulk of its body； by showing its teeth； or brandishing its horns； or by uttering fierce sounds。
As the power of intercommunication is certainly of high service to many animals； there is no _a priori_ improbability in the supposition； that gestures manifestly of an opposite nature to those by which certain feelings are already expressed； should at first have been voluntarily employed under the influence of an opposite state of feeling。 The fact of the gestures being now innate； would be no valid objection to the belief that they were at first intentional； for if practised during many generations； they would probably at last be inherited。 Nevertheless it is more than doubtful； as we shall immediately see； whether any of the cases which come under our present head of antithesis； have thus originated。
With conventional signs which are not innate； such as those used by the deaf and dumb and by savages； the principle of opposition or antithesis has been partially brought into play。 The Cistercian monks thought it sinful to speak； and as they could not avoid holding some communication； they invented a gesture language； in which the principle of opposition seems to have been employed。＇2＇ Dr。 Scott； of the Exeter Deaf and Dumb Institution； writes to me that 〃opposites are greatly used in teaching the deaf and dumb； who have a lively sense of them。〃 Nevertheless I have been surprised how few unequivocal instances can be adduced。 This depends partly on all the signs having commonly had some natural origin； and partly on the practice of the deaf and dumb and of savages to contract their signs as much as possible for the sake of rapidity？＇3＇ Hence their natural source or origin often becomes doubtful or is completely lost； as is likewise the case with articulate language。
＇1＇ ‘Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay；' 1830； s。 55。
＇2＇ Mr。 Tylor gives an account of the Cistercian gesture…language in his ‘Early History of Mankind' （2nd edit。 1870； p。 40）； and makes some remarks on the principle of opposition in gestures
