the boss and the machine-第16章

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principal　point　of　his　contact　with　the　machine。　He　has；　of
course；　other　means　of　showing　partizan　favors。　Tariff　laws；　laws
regulating　interstate　commerce；　reciprocity　treaties；　〃pork
barrels；〃　pensions；　financial　policies；　are　all　pregnant　with
political　possibilities。

The　second　official　unit　in　the　national　political　hierarchy　is
the　House　of　Representatives；　controlling　the　pursestrings；　which
have　been　the　deadly　noose　of　many　executive　measures。　The　House
is　elected　every　two　years；　so　that　it　may　ever　be　〃near　to　the
people〃！　This　produces　a　reflex　not　anticipated　by　the　Fathers　of
the　Constitution。　It　gives　the　representative　brief　respite　from
the　necessities　of　politics；　and　hence　little　time　for　the
necessities　of　the　State。

The　House　attained　the　zenith　of　its　power　when　it　arraigned
President　Johnson　at　the　bar　of　the　Senate　for　high　crimes　and
misdemeanors　in　office。　It　had　shackled　his　appointing　power　by
the　Tenure　of　Office　Act；　it　had　forced　its　plan　of
reconstruction　over　his　veto；　and　now　it　led　him；　dogged　and
defiant；　to　a　political　trial。　Within　a　few　years　the　character
of　the　House　changed。　A　new　generation　interested　in　the　issues
of　prosperity；　rather　than　those　of　the　war；　entered　public　life。
The　House　grew　unwieldy　in　size　and　its　business　increased
alarmingly。　The　minority；　meanwhile；　retained　the　power；　through
filibustering；　to　hold　up　the　business　of　the　country。

It　was　under　such　conditions　that　Speaker　Reed；　in　1890；　crowned
himself　〃Czar〃　by　compelling　a　quorum。　This　he　did　by　counting　as
actually　present　all　members　whom　the　clerk　reported　as　〃present
but　not　voting。〃　The　minority　fought　desperately　for　its　last
privilege　and　even　took　a　case　to　the　Supreme　Court　to　test　the
constitutionality　of　a　law　passed　by　a　Reed…made　quorum。　The
court　concurred　with　the　sensible　opinion　of　the　country　that
〃when　the　quorum　is　present；　it　is　there　for　the　purpose　of　doing
business；〃　an　opinion　that　was　completely　vindicated　when　the
Democratic　minority　became　a　majority　and　adopted　the　rule　for
its　own　advantage。

By　this　ruling；　the　Speakership　was　lifted　to　a　new　eminence。　The
party　caucus；　which　nominated　the　Speaker；　and　to　which　momentous
party　questions　were　referred；　gave　solidarity　to　the　party。　But
the　influence　of　the　Speaker；　through　his　power　of　appointing
committees；　of　referring　bills；　of　recognizing　members　who　wished
to　participate　in　debate；　insured　that　discipline　and　centralized
authority　which　makes　mass　action　effective。　The　power　of　the
Speaker　was　further　enlarged　by　the　creation　of　the　Rules
Committee；　composed　of　the　Speaker　and　two　members　from　each
party　designated　by　him。　This　committee　formed　a　triumvirate　（the
minority　members　were　merely　formal　members）　which　set　the　limits
of　debate；　proposed　special　rules　for　such　occasions　as　the
committee　thought　proper；　and　virtually　determined　the　destiny　of
bills。　So　it　came　about；　as　Bryce　remarks；　that　the　choice　of　the
Speaker　was　〃a　political　event　of　the　highest　significance。〃

It　was　under　the　regency　of　Speaker　Cannon　that　the　power　of　the
Speaker's　office　attained　its　climax。　The　Republicans　had　a　large
majority　in　the　House　and　the　old　war…horses　felt　like　colts。
They　assumed　their　leadership；　however；　with　that　obliviousness
to　youth　which　usually　characterizes　old　age。　The　gifted　and
attractive　Reed　had　ruled　often　by　aphorism　and　wit；　but　the
unimaginative　Cannon　ruled　by　the　gavel　alone；　and　in　the　course
of　time　he　and　his　clique　of　veterans　forgot　entirely　the
difference　between　power　and　leadership。

Even　party　regularity　could　not　long　endure　such　tyranny。　It　was
not　against　party　organization　that　the　insurgents　finally　raised
their　lances；　but　against　the　arbitrary　use　of　the　machinery　of
the　organization　by　a　small　group　of　intrenched　〃standpatters。〃
The　revolt　began　during　the　debate　on　the　Payne…Aldrich　tariff；
and　in　the　campaign　of　1908　〃Cannonism〃　was　denounced　from　the
stump　in　every　part　of　the　country。　By　March；　1910；　the
insurgents　were　able；　with　the　aid　of　the　Democrats；　to　amend　the
rules；　increasing　the　Committee　on　Rules　to　ten　to　be　elected　by
the　House　and　making　the　Speaker　ineligible　for　membership。　When
the　Democrats　secured　control　of　the　House　in　the　following　year；
the　rules　were　revised；　and　the　selection　of　all　committees　is
now　determined　by　a　Committee　on　Committees　chosen　in　party
caucus。　This　change　shifts　arbitrary　power　from　the　shoulders　of
the　Speaker　to　the　shoulders　of　the　party　chieftains。　The　power
of　the　Speaker　has　been　lessened　but　by　no　means　destroyed。　He　is
still　the　party　chanticleer。

The　political　power　of　the　House；　however；　cannot　be　calculated
without　admitting　to　the　equation　the　Senate；　the　third　official
unit；　and；　indeed；　the　most　powerful　factor　in　the　national
hierarchy。　The　Senate　shares　equally　with　the　House　the
responsibility　of　lawmaking；　and　shares　with　the　President　the
responsibility　of　appointments　and　of　treaty…making。　It　has　been
the　scene　of　many　memorable　contests　with　the　President　for
political　control。　The　senators　are　elder　statesmen；　who　have
passed　through　the　refining　fires　of　experience；　either　in　law；
business；　or　politics。　A　senator　is　elected　for　six　years；　so
that　he　has　a　period　of　rest　between　elections；　in　which　he　may
forget　his　constituents　in　the　ardor　of　his　duties。

Within　the　last　few　decades　a　great　change　has　come　over　the
Senate；　over　its　membership；　its　attitude　towards　public
questions；　and　its　relation　to　the　electorate。　This　has　been
brought　about　through　disclosures　tending　to　show　the　relations
on　the　part　of　some　senators　towards　〃big　business。〃　As　early　as
the　Granger　revelations　of　railway　machinations　in　politics；　in
the　seventies；　a　popular　distrust　of　the　Senate　became
pronounced。　No　suggestion　of　corruption　was　implied；　but　certain
senators　were　known　as　〃railway　senators；〃　and　were　believed　to
use　their　partizan　influence　in　their　friends'　behalf。　This
feeling　increased　from　year　to　year；　until　what　was　long
suspected　came　suddenly　to　light；　through　an　entirely　unexpected
agency。　William　Randolph　Hearst；　a　newspaper　owner　who　had　in
vain　attempted　to　secure　a　nomination　for　President　by　the
Democrats　and　to　get　himself　elected　Governor　of　New　York；　had
organized　and　financed　a　party　of　his　own；　the　Independence
League。　While　speaking　in　behalf　of　his　party；　in　the　fall　of
1908；　he　read　extracts　from　letters　written　by　an　official　of　the
Standard　Oil　Company　to　various　senators。　The　letters；　it　later
appeared；　had　been　purloined　from　the　Company's　files　by　a
faithless　employee。　They　caused　a　tremendous　sensation。　The
public　mind　had　become　so　sensitive　that　the　mere　fact　that　an
intimacy　existed　between　the　most　notorious　of　trusts　and　some
few　United　States　senatorsthe　correspondents　called　each　other
〃Dear　John；〃　〃Dear　Senator；〃　etc。was　sufficient　to　arouse　the
general　wrath。　The　letters　disclosed　a　keen　interest　on　the　part
of　the　corporation　in　the　details　of　legislation；　and　the　public
promptly　took　the　Standard　Oil　Company　as　a　type。　They　believed；
without　demanding　tangible　proof；　that　other　great　corporations
were；　in　some　sinister　manner；　influencing　legislation。
Railroads；　insurance　companies；　great　banking　concerns；　vast
industrial　corporations；　were　associated　in　the　public　mind　as
〃the　Interests。〃　And　the　United　States　Senate　was　deemed　the
stronghold　of　the　interests。　A　saturnalia　of　senatorial
muckraking　now　laid　bare　the　〃oligarchy；〃　as　the　small　group　of
powerful　veteran　Senators　who　controlled　the　senatorial　machinery
was　called。　It　was　disclosed　that　the　centralization　of
leadership　in　the　Senate　coincided　with　the　centralization　of
power　in　the　Democratic　and　Republican　national　machines。　In　1911
and　1912　a　〃money　trust〃　investigation　was　conducted　by　the
Senate　and　a　comfortable　entente　was　revealed　between　a　group　of
bankers；　insurance　companies；　manufacturers；　and　other　interests；
carried　on　through　an　elaborate　system　of　interlocking
directorates。　Finally；　in　1912；　the　Senate　ordered　its　Committee
on　Privileges　and　Elections　to　investigate　campaign　contributions
paid　to　the　national　campaign　committees　in　1904；　1908；　and　1912。
The　testimony　taken　before　this　committee　supplied　the　country
with　authentic　data　of　the　interrelations　of　Big　Business　and　Big
Politics。

The　revolt　against　〃Cannonism〃　in　the　House　had　its　counterpart
in　the　Senate。　By　the　time　the　Aldrich　tariff　bill　came　to　a　vote
（1909）；　about　ten　Republican　senators　rebelled。　The　revolt
gathered　momentum　and　culminated　in　1912　in　the　organization　of
the　National　Progressive　party　with　Theodore　Roosevelt　as　its
candidate　for　President　and　Hiram　Johnson　of　California　for　Vice…
President。　The　majority　of　the　Progressives　returned　to　the
Republican　fold　in　1916。　But　the　rupture　was　not　healed；　and　the
Democrats　reelected　Woodrow　Wilson。



CHAPTER　IX。　THE　AWAKENING

In　the　early　days　a　ballot　was　simply　a　piece　of　paper　with　the
names　of　the　candidates　written　or　printed　on　it。　As　party
organizations　became　more　ambitious；　the　party　printed　its　own
ballots；　and　〃scratching〃　was　done　by　pasting　gummed　stickers；
with　the　names　of　the　substitutes　printed　on　them；　over　the
regular　ballot；　or　by　simply　striking　out　a　name　and　writing
another　one　in　its　place。　It　was　customary　to　print　the　different
party　tickets　on　different　colored　paper；　so　that　the　judges　in
charge　of　the　ballot　boxes　could　tell　how　the　men　voted。　When
later　laws　required　all　ballots　to　be　printed　on　white　paper　and
of　the　same　size；　the　parties　used　paper　of　different　texture。
Election　officials　could　then　tell　by　the　〃feel〃　which　ticket　was
voted。　Finally　paper　of　the　same　color　and　quality　was　enjoined
by　some　States。　But　it　was　not　until　the　State　itself　undertook
to　print　the　ballots　that　uniformity　was　secured。

In　the　meantime　the　peddling　of　tickets　was　a　regular　occupation
on　election　day。　Canvassers　invaded　homes　and　places　of　business；
and　even　surrounded　the　voting　place。　It　was　the　custom　in　many
parts　of　the　country　for　the　voters　to　prepare　the　ballots　before
reaching　the　voting　place　and　carry　them　in　the　vest　pocket；　with
a　margin　showing。　This　was　a　sort　of　signal　that　the　voter's　mind
had　been　made　up　and　that　he　should　be　let　alone；　yet　even　with
this　signal　showing；　in　hotly　contested　elections　the　voter　ran　a
noisy　gauntlet　of　eager　solicitors；　harassing　him　on　his　way　to
vote　as　cab　drivers　assail　the　traveler　when　he　alights　from　the
train。　This　free　and　easy　method；　tolerable　in　sparsely　settled
pioneer　districts；　failed　miserably　in　the　cities。　It　was
necessary　to　pass　rigorous　laws　against　vote　buying　and　selling；
and　to　clear　the　polling…place　of　all　partizan　soliciting。　Penal
provisions　were　enacted　against　intimidation；　violence；
repeating；　false　swearing　when　challenged；　ballot…box　stuffing；
and　the　more　patent　forms　of　partizan　vices。　In　order　to　stop　the
practice　of　〃repeating；〃　New　York　early　passed　laws　requiring
voters　to　be　duly　registered。　But　the　early　laws　were　defective；
and　the　rolls　were　easily　padded。　In　most　of　the　cities　poll
lists　were　ma