the boss and the machine-第17章

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voters　to　be　duly　registered。　But　the　early　laws　were　defective；
and　the　rolls　were　easily　padded。　In　most　of　the　cities　poll
lists　were　made　by　the　party　workers；　and　the　name　of　each　voter
was　checked　off　as　he　voted。　It　was　still　impossible　for　the
voter　to　keep　secret　his　ballot。　The　buyer　of　votes　could　tell
whether　he　got　what　he　paid　for；　the　employer；　so　disposed；　could
bully　those　dependent　on　him　into　voting　as　he　wished；　and　the
way　was　open　to　all　manner　of　tricks　in　the　printing　of　ballots
with　misleading　emblems；　or　with　certain　names　omitted；　or　with　a
mixture　of　candidates　from　various　partiestricks　that　were
later　forbidden　by　law　but　were　none　the　less　common。

Rather　suddenly　a　great　change　came　over　election　day。　In　1888
Kentucky　adopted　the　Australian　ballot　for　the　city　of
Louisville；　and　Massachusetts　adopted　it　for　all　state　and　local
elections。　The　Massachusetts　statute　provided　that　before　an
election　each　political　party　should　certify　its　nominees　to　the
Secretary　of　the　Commonwealth。　The　State　then　printed　the
ballots。　All　the　nominees　of　all　the　parties　were　printed　on　one
sheet。　Each　office　was　placed　in　a　separate　column；　the
candidates　in　alphabetical　order；　with　the　names　of　the　parties
following。　Blank　spaces　were　left　for　those　who　wished　to　vote
for　others　than　the　regular　nominees。　This　form　of　ballot
prevented　〃voting　straight〃　with　a　single　mark。　The　voter；　in　the
seclusion　of　a　booth　at　the　polling…place；　had　to　pick　his
party's　candidates　from　the　numerous　columns。

Indiana；　in　1889；　adopted　a　similar　statute　but　the　ballot　had
certain　modifications　to　suit　the　needs　of　party　orthodoxy。　Here
the　columns　represented　parties；　not　offices。　Each　party　had　a
column。　Each　column　was　headed　by　the　party　name　and　its　device；
so　that　those　who　could　not　read　could　vote　for　the　Rooster　or
the　Eagle　or　the　Fountain。　There　was　a　circle　placed　under　the
device；　and　by　making　his　mark　in　this　circle　the　voter　voted
straight。

Within　eight　years　thirty…eight　States　and　two　Territories　had
adopted　the　Australian　or　blanket　ballot　in　some　modified　form。
It　was　but　a　step　to　the　state　control　of　the　election　machinery。
Some　state　officer；　usually　the　Secretary　of　State；　was
designated　to　see　that　the　election　laws　were　enforced。　In　New
York　a　State　Commissioner　of　Elections　was　appointed。　The
appointment　of　local　inspectors　and　judges　remained　for　a　time　in
the　hands　of　the　parties。　But　soon　in　several　States　even　this
power　was　taken　from　them；　and　the　trend　now　is　towards
appointing　all　election　officers　by　the　central　authority。　These
officers　also　have　complete　charge　of　the　registration　of　voters。
In　some　States；　like　New　York；　registration　has　become　a　rather
solemn　procedure；　requiring　the　answering　of　many　questions　and
the　signing　of　the　voter's　name；　all　under　the　threat　of　perjury
if　a　wilful　misrepresentation　is　made。

So　passed　out　of　the　control　of　the　party　the　preparation　of　the
ballot　and　the　use　of　the　ballot　on　election　day。　Innumerable
rules　have　been　laid　down　by　the　State　for　the　conduct　of
elections。　The　distribution　of　the　ballots；　their　custody　before
election；　the　order　of　electional　procedure；　the　counting　of　the
ballots；　the　making　of　returns；　the　custody　of　the　ballot…boxes；
and　all　other　necessary　details；　are　regulated　by　law　under
official　state　supervision。　The　parties　are　allowed　watchers　at
the　polls；　but　these　have　no　official　standing。

If　a　Revolutionary　Father　could　visit　his　old　haunts　on　election
day；　he　would　be　astonished　at　the　sober　decorum。　In　his　time
elections　lasted　three　days；　days　filled　with　harangue；　with
drinking；　betting；　raillery；　and　occasional　encounters。　Even
those　whose　memory　goes　back　to　the　Civil　War　can　contrast　the
ballot　peddling；　the　soliciting；　the　crowded　noisy
polling…places；　with　the　calm　and　quiet　with　which　men　deposit
their　ballots　today。　For　now　every　ballot　is　numbered　and　no　one
is　permitted　to　take　a　single　copy　from　the　room。　Every　voter
must　prepare　his　ballot　in　the　booth。　And　every　polling…place　is
an　island　of　immunity　in　the　sea　of　political　excitement。

While　the　people　were　thus　assuming　control　of　the　ballot；　they
were　proceeding　to　gain　control　of　their　legislatures。　In　1890
Massachusetts　enacted　one　of　the　first　anti…lobby　laws。　It　has
served　as　a　model　for　many　other　States。　It　provided　that　the
sergeant…at…arms　should　keep　dockets　in　which　were　enrolled　the
names　of　all　persons　employed　as　counsel　or　agents　before
legislative　committees。　Each　counsel　or　agent　was　further
compelled　to　state　the　length　of　his　engagement；　the　subjects　or
bills　for　which　he　was　employed；　and　the　name　and　address　of　his
employer。

The　first　session　after　the　passage　of　this　law；　many　of　the
professional　lobbyists　refused　to　enroll；　and　the　most　notorious
ones　were　seen　no　more　in　the　State　House。　The　regular　counsel　of
railroads；　insurance　companies；　and　other　interests　signed　the
proper　docket　and　appeared　for　their　clients　in　open　committee
meetings。

The　law　made　it　the　duty　of　the　Secretary　of　the　Commonwealth　to
report　to　the　law　officers　of　the　State；　for　prosecution；　all
those　who　failed　to　comply　with　the　act。　Sixty…seven　such
delinquents　were　reported　the　first　year。　The　Grand　Jury　refused
to　indict　them；　but　the　number　of　recalcitrants　has　gradually
diminished。

The　experience　of　Massachusetts　is　not　unique。　Other　States
passed　more　or　less　rigorous　anti…lobby　laws；　and　today；　in　no
state　Capitol；　will　the　visitor　see　the　disgusting　sights　that
were　usual　thirty　years　agoarrogant　and　coarse　professional
〃agents〃　mingling　on　the　floor　of　the　legislature　with　members；
even　suggesting　procedure　to　presiding　officers；　and　not
infrequently　commandeering　a　majority。　Such　influences；　where
they　persist；　have　been　driven　under　cover。

With　the　decline　of　the　professional　lobbyist　came　the　rise　of
the　volunteer　lobbyist。　Important　bills　are　now　considered　in
formal　committee　hearings　which　are　well　advertised　so　that
interested　parties　may　be　present。　Publicity　and　information　have
taken　the　place　of　secrecy　in　legislative　procedure。　The
gathering　of　expert　testimony　by　special　legislative　commissions
of　inquiry　is　now　a　frequent　practice　in　respect　to　subjects　of
wide　social　import；　such　as　workmen's　compensation；　widows'
pensions；　and　factory　conditions。

A　number　of　States　have　resorted　to　the　initiative　and　referendum
as　applied　to　ordinary　legislation。　By　means　of　this　method　a
small　percentage　of　the　voters；　from　eight　to　ten　per　cent；　may
initiate　proposals　and　impose　upon　the　voters　the　function　of
legislation。　South　Dakota；　in　1898；　made　constitutional　provision
for　direct　legislation。　Utah　followed　in　1900；　Oregon　in　1902；
Nevada　in　1904；　Montana　in　1906；　and　Oklahoma　in　1907。　East　of
the　Mississippi；　several　States　have　adopted　a　modified　form　of
the　initiative　and　referendum。　In　Oregon；　where　this　device　of
direct　government　has　been　most　assiduously　applied；　the　voters
in　1908　voted　upon　nineteen　different　bills　and　constitutional
amendments；　in　1910　the　number　increased　to　thirty…two；　in　1912；
to　thirty…seven；　in　1914　it　fell　to　twenty…nine。　The　vote　cast
for　these　measures　rarely　exceeded　eighty　per　cent　of　those
voting　at　the　election　and　frequently　fell　below　sixty。

The　electorate　that　attempts　to　rid　itself　of　the　evils　of　the
state　legislature　by　these　heroic　methods　assumes　a　heavy
responsibility。　When　the　burden　of　direct　legislation　is　added　to
the　task　of　choosing　from　the　long　list　of　elective　officers
which　is　placed　before　the　voter　at　every　local　and　state
election；　it　is　not　surprising　that　there　should　set　in　a
reaction　in　favor　of　simplified　government。　The　mere　separation
of　state　and　local　elections　does　not　solve　the　problem。　It
somewhat　minimizes　the　chances　of　partizan　influence　over　the
voter　in　local　elections；　but　the　voter　is　still　confronted　with
the　long　lists　of　candidates　for　elective　offices。　Ballots　not
infrequently　contain　two　hundred　names；　sometimes　even　three
hundred　or　more；　covering　candidates　of　four　or　five　parties　for
scores　of　offices。　These　blanket　ballots　are　sometimes　three　feet
long。　After　an　election　in　Chicago　in　1916；　one　of　the　leading
dailies　expressed　sympathy　〃for　the　voter　emerging　from　the
polling…booth；　clutching　a　handful　of　papers；　one　of　them　about
half　as　large　as　a　bed　sheet。〃　Probably　most　voters　were　able　to
express　a　real　preference　among　the　national　candidates。　It　is
almost　equally　certain　that　most　voters　were　not　able　to　express
a　real　preference　among　important　local　administrative　officials。
A　huge　ballot；　all　printed　over　with　names；　supplemented　by　a
series　of　smaller　ballots；　can　never　be　a　manageable　instrument
even　for　an　electorate　as　intelligent　as　ours。

Simplification　is　the　prophetic　watchword　in　state　government
today。　For　cities；　the　City　Manager　and　the　Commission　have
offered　salvation。　A　few　officers　only　are　elected　and　these　are
held　strictly　responsible；　sometimes　under　the　constant　threat　of
the　recall；　for　the　entire　administration。　Over　four　hundred
cities　have　adopted　the　form　of　government　by　Commission。　But
nothing　has　been　done　to　simplify　our　state　governments；　which
are　surrounded　by　a　maze　of　heterogeneous　and　undirected　boards
and　authorities。　Every　time　the　legislature　found　itself
confronted　by　a　new　function　to　be　cared　for；　it　simply　created　a
new　board。　New　York　has　a　hodgepodge　of　over　116　such
authorities；　Minnesota；　75；　Illinois；　100。　Iowa　in　1913　and
Illinois　and　Minnesota　in　1914；　indeed；　perfected　elaborate
proposals　for　simplifying　their　state　governments。　But　these
suggestions　remain　dormant。　And　the　New　York　State　Constitutional
Convention　in　1915　prepared　a　new　Constitution　for　the　State；
with　the　same　end　in　view；　but　their　work　was　not　accepted　by　the
people。　It　may　be　said；　however；　that　in　our　attempt　to　rid
ourselves　of　boss　rule　we　have　swung　through　the　arc　of　direct
government　and　are　now　on　the　returning　curve　toward
representative　government；　a　more　intensified　representative
government　that　makes　evasion　of　responsibility　and　duty
impossible　by　fixing　it　upon　one　or　two　men。



CHAPTER　X。　PARTY　REFORM

The　State；　at　first；　had　paid　little　attention　to　the　party；
which　was　regarded　as　a　purely　voluntary　aggregation　of
like…minded　citizens。　Evidently　the　State　could　not　dictate　that
you　should　be　a　Democrat　or　a　Republican　or　force　you　to　be　an
Independent。　With　the　adoption　of　the　Australian　ballot；　however；
came　the　legal　recognition　of　the　party；　for　as　soon　as　the　State
recognized　the　party's　designated　nominees　in　the　preparation　of
the　official　ballot；　it　recognized　the　party。　It　was　then
discovered　that；　unless　some　restrictions　were　imposed；　groups　of
interested　persons　in　the　old　parties　would　manage　the
nominations　of　both　to　their　mutual　satisfaction。　Thus　a　handful
of　Democrats　would　visit　Republican　caucuses　or　primaries　and　a
handful　of　Republicans　would　return　the　favor　to　the　Democrats。
In　other　words；　the　bosses　of　both　parties　would　cooperate　in
order　to　secure　nominations　satisfactory　to　themselves。
Mas