the boss and the machine-第18章

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order　to　secure　nominations　satisfactory　to　themselves。
Massachusetts　began　the　reform　by　defining　a　party　as　a　group　of
persons　who　had　cast　a　certain　percentage　of　the　votes　at　the
preceding　election。　This　definition　has　been　widely　accepted；　and
the　number　of　votes　has　been　variously　fixed　at　from　two　to
twenty…five　per　cent。　Other　States　have　followed　the　New　York
plan　of　fixing　definitely　the　number　of　voters　necessary　to　form
a　party。　In　New　York　no　fewer　than　10；000　voters　can　secure
recognition　as　a　state　party；　exception　being　made　in　favor　of
municipal　or　purely　local　parties。　But　merely　fixing　the
numerical　minimum　of　the　party　was　not　enough。　The　State　took
another　step　forward　in　depriving　the　manipulator　of　his　liberty
when　it　undertook　to　determine　who　was　entitled　to　membership　in
the　party　and　privileged　to　take　part　in　its　nominations　and
other　party　procedure。　Otherwise　the　virile　minority　in　each
party　would　control　both　the　membership　and　the　nominations。

An　Oregon　statute　declares：　〃Every　political　party　and　every
volunteer　political　organization　has　the　same　right　to　be
protected　from　the　interference　of　persons　who　are　not　identified
with　it；　as　its　known　and　publicly　avowed　members；　that　the
government　of　the　State　has　to　protect　itself　from　the
interference　of　persons　who　are　not　known　and　registered　as　its
electors。　It　is　as　great　a　wrong　to　the　people；　as　well　as　to
members　of　a　political　party；　for　anyone　who　is　not　known　to　be
one　of　its　members　to　vote　or　take　any　part　at　any　election；　or
other　proceedings　of　such　political　party；　as　it　is　for　one　who
is　not　a　qualified　and　registered　elector　to　vote　at　any　state
election　or　to　take　part　in　the　business　of　the　State。〃　It　is　a
far　reach　from　the　democratic　laissez　faire　of　Jackson's　day　to
this　state　dogmatism　which　threatens　the　independent　or　detached
voter　with　ultimate　extinction。

A　variety　of　methods　have　been　adopted　for　initiating　the　citizen
into　party　membership。　In　the　Southern　States；　where　the　dual
party　system　does　not　exist；　the　legislature　has　left　the　matter
in　the　hands　of　the　duly　appointed　party　officials。　They　can；
with　canonical　rigor；　determine　the　party　standing　of　voters　at
the　primaries。　But　where　there　is　party　competition；　such　a
generous　endowment　of　power　would　be　dangerous。

Many　States　permit　the　voter　to　make　his　declaration　of　party
allegiance　when　he　goes　to　the　primary。　He　asks　for　the　ticket　of
the　party　whose　nominees　he　wishes　to　help　select。　He　is　then
handed　the　party's　ballot；　which　he　marks　and　places　in　the
ballot…box　of　that　party。　Now；　if　he　is　challenged；　he　must
declare　upon　oath　that　he　is　a　member　of　that　party；　that　he　has
generally　supported　its　tickets　and　its　principles；　and　that　at
the　coming　election　he　intends　to　support　at　least　a　majority　of
its　nominees。　In　this　method　little　freedom　is　left　to　the　voter
who　wishes　to　participate　as　an　independent　both　in　the　primaries
and　in　the　general　election。

The　New　York　plan　is　more　rigorous。　Here；　in　all　cities；　the
voter　enrolls　his　name　on　his　party's　lists　when　he　goes　to
register　for　the　coming　election。　He　receives　a　ballot　upon　which
are　the　following　words：　〃I　am　in　general　sympathy　with　the
principles　of　the　party　which　I　have　designated　by　my　mark
hereunder；　it　is　my　intention　to　support　generally　at　the　next
general　election；　state　and　national；　the　nominees　of　such　party
for　state　and　national　offices；　and　I　have　not　enrolled　with　or
participated　in　any　primary　election　or　convention　of　any　other
party　since　the　first　day　of　last　year。〃　On　this　enrollment　blank
he　indicates　the　party　of　his　choice；　and　the　election　officials
deposit　all　the　ballots；　after　sealing　them　in　envelopes；　in　a
special　box。　At　a　time　designated　by　law；　these　seals　are　broken
and　the　party　enrollment　is　compiled　from　them。　These　party
enrollment　books　are　public　records。　Everyone　who　cares　may
consult　the　lists。　The　advantages　of　secrecysuch　as　they
areare　thus　not　secured。

It　remained　for　Wisconsin；　the　experimenting　State；　to　find　a　way
of　insuring　secrecy。　Here；　when　the　voter　goes　to　the　primary；　he
is　handed　a　large　ballot；　upon　which　all　the　party　nominations
are　printed。　The　different　party　tickets　are　separated　by
perforations；　so　that　the　voter　simply　tears　out　the　party　ticket
he　wishes　to　vote；　marks　it；　and　puts　it　in　the　box。　The　rejected
tickets　he　deposits　in　a　large　waste　basket　provided　for　the
discards。

While　the　party　was　being　fenced　in　by　legal　definition；　its
machinery；　the　intricate　hierarchy　of　committees；　was　subjected
to　state　scrutiny　with　the　avowed　object　of　ridding　the　party　of
ring　rule。　The　State　Central　Committee　is　the　key　to　the
situation。　To　democratize　this　committee　is　a　task　that　has
severely　tested　the　ingenuity　of　the　State；　for　the　inventive
capacity　of　the　professional　politician　is　prodigious。　The
devices　to　circumvent　the　politician　are　so　numerous　and　various
that　only　a　few　types　can　be　selected　to　illustrate　how　the　State
is　carrying　out　its　determination。　Illinois　has　provided　perhaps
the　most　democratic　method。　In　each　congressional　district；　the
voters；　at　the　regular　party　primaries；　choose　the　member　of　the
state　committee　for　the　district；　who　serves　for　a　term　of　two
years。　The　law　says　that　〃no　other　person　or　persons　whomsoever〃
than　those　so　chosen　by　the　voters　shall　serve　on　the　committee；
so　that　members　by　courtesy　or　by　proxy；　who　might　represent　the
boss；　are　apparently　shut　off。　The　law　stipulates　the　time　within
which　the　committee　must　meet　and　organize。　Under　this　plan；　if
the　ring　controls　the　committee；　the　fault　lies　wholly　with　the
majority　of　the　party；　it　is　a　self…imposed　thraldom。

Iowa　likewise　stipulates　that　the　Central　Committee　shall　be
composed　of　one　member　from　each　congressional　district。　But　the
members　are　chosen　in　a　state　convention；　organized　under　strict
and　minute　regulations　imposed　by　law。　It　permits　considerable
freedom　to　the　committee；　however；　stating　that　it　〃may　organize
at　pleasure　for　political　work　as　is　usual　and　customary　with
such　committees。〃

In　Wisconsin　another　plan　was　adopted　in　1907。　Here　the
candidates　for　the　various　state　offices　and　for　both　branches　of
the　legislature　and　the　senators　whose　terms　have　not　expired
meet　in　the　state　capital　at　noon　on　a　day　specified　by　law　and
elect　by　ballot　a　central　committee　consisting　of　at　least　two
members　from　each　congressional　district。　A　chairman　is　chosen　in
the　same　manner。

Most　States；　however；　leave　some　leeway　in　the　choice　of　the
state　committee；　permitting　their　election　usually　by　the　regular
primaries　but　controlling　their　action　in　many　details。　The
lesser　committeescounty；　city；　district；　judicial；　senatorial；
congressional；　and　othersare　even　more　rigorously　controlled　by
law。

So　the　issuing　of　the　party　platform；　the　principles　on　which　it
must　stand　or　fall；　has　been　touched　by　this　process　of
ossification。　Few　States　retain　the　state　convention　in　its
original　vigor。　In　all　States　where　primaries　are　held　for　state
nominations；　the　emasculated　and　subdued　convention　is　permitted
to　write　the　party　platform。　But　not　so　in　some　States。　Wisconsin
permits　the　candidates　and　the　hold…over　members　of　the　Senate；
assembled　according　to　law　in　a　state　meeting；　to　issue　the
platform。　In　other　States；　the　Central　Committee　and　the　various
candidates　for　state　office　form　a　party　council　and　frame　the
platform。　Oregon；　in　1901；　tried　a　novel　method　of　providing
platforms　by　referendum。　But　the　courts　declared　the　law
unconstitutional。　So　Oregon　now　permits　each　candidate　to　write
his　own　platform　in　not　over　one　hundred　words　and　file　it　with
his　nominating　petition；　and　to　present　a　statement　of　not　over
twelve　words　to　be　printed　on　the　ballot。

The　convention　system　provided　many　opportunities　for　the
manipulator　and　was　inherently　imperfect　for　nominating　more　than
one　or　two　candidates　for　office。　It　has　survived　as　the　method
of　nominating　candidates　for　President　of　the　United　States
because　it　is　adapted　to　the　wide　geographical　range　of　the
nation　and　because　in　the　national　convention　only　a　President
and　a　Vice…President　are　nominated。　In　state　and　county
conventions；　where　often　candidates　for　a　dozen　or　more　offices
are　to　be　nominated；　it　was　often　subject　to　demoralizing
bartering。

The　larger　the　number　of　nominations　to　be　made；　the　more
complete　was　the　jobbery；　and　this　was　the　death　warrant　of　the
local　convention。　These　evils　were　recognized　as　early　as　June
20；　1860；　when　the　Republican　county　convention　of　Crawford
County；　Pennsylvania；　adopted　the　following　resolutions：

〃Whereas；　in　nominating　candidates　for　the　several　county
offices；　it　clearly　is；　or　ought　to　be；　the　object　to　arrive　as
nearly　as　possible　at　the　wishes　of　the　majority；　or　at　least　a
plurality　of　the　Republican　voters；　and

Whereas　the　present　system　of　nominating　by　delegates；　who
virtually　represent　territory　rather　than　votes；　and　who　almost
necessarily　are　wholly　unacquainted　with　the　wishes　and　feelings
of　their　constituents　in　regard　to　various　candidates　for　office；
is　undemocratic；　because　the　people　have　no　voice　in　it；　and
objectionable；　because　men　are　often　placed　in　nomination　because
of　their　location　who　are　decidedly　unpopular；　even　in　their　own
districts；　and　because　it　affords　too　great　an　opportunity　for
scheming　and　designing　men　to　accomplish　their　own　purposes；
therefore

Resolved；　that　we　are　in　favor　of　submitting　nominations　directly
to　the　peoplethe　Republican　votersand　that　delegate
conventions　for　nominating　county　officers　be　abolished；　and　we
hereby　request　and　instruct　the　county　committee　to　issue　their
call　in　1861；　in　accordance　with　the　spirit　of　this　resolution。〃

Upon　the　basis　of　this　indictment　of　the　county　convention
system；　the　Republican　voters　of　Crawford　County；　a　rural
community；　whose　largest　town　is　Meadville；　the　county　seat；
proceeded　to　nominate　their　candidates　by　direct　vote；　under
rules　prepared　by　the　county　committee。　These　rules　have　been　but
slightly　changed。　The　informality　of　a　hat　or　open　table　drawer
has　been　replaced　by　an　official　ballotbox；　and　an　official
ballot　has　taken　the　place　of　the　tickets　furnished　by　each
candidate。

The　〃Crawford　County　plan；〃　as　it　was　generally　called；　was
adopted　by　various　localities　in　many　States。　In　1866　California
and　New　York　enacted　laws　to　protect　primaries　and　nominating
caucuses　from　fraud。　In　1871　Ohio　and　Pennsylvania　enacted
similar　laws；　followed　by　Missouri　in　1875　and　New　Jersey　in
1878。　By　1890　over　a　dozen　States　had　passed　laws　attempting　to
eliminate　the　grosser　frauds　attendant　upon　making　nominations。
In　many　instances　it　was　made　optional　with　the　party　whether　the
direct　plan　should　supersede　the　delegate　plan。　Only　in　certain
cities；　however；　was　the　primary　made　mandatory　in　these　States。
By　far　the　larger　areas　retained　the　convention。

There　is　noticeable　in　these　years　a　gradual　increase　in　the
amount　of　legislation　concerning　the　nominating　machinery
prescribing　the　days　and　hours　for　holding　ele