the boss and the machine-第2章

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Clay；　the　alluring　orator　and　master　of　compromise；　brought
together　a　coalition　of　opposing　fragments。　He　and　his　following
objected　to　Jackson's　assumption　of　vast　executive　prerogatives；
and　in　a　brilliant　speech　in　the　Senate　Clay　espoused　the　name
Whig。　Having　explained　the　origin　of　the　term　in　English　and
colonial　politics；　he　cried：　〃And　what　is　the　present　but　the
same　contest　in　another　form？　The　partizans　of　the　present
Executive　sustain　his　favor　in　the　most　boundless　extent。　The
Whigs　are　opposing　executive　encroachment　and　a　most　alarming
extension　of　executive　power　and　prerogative。　They　are　contending
for　the　rights　of　the　people；　for　free　institutions；　for　the
supremacy　of　the　Constitution　and　the　laws。〃

There　soon　appeared　three　practical　issues　which　forced　the　new
alignment。　The　first　was　the　Bank。　The　charter　of　the　United
States　Bank　was　about　to　expire；　and　its　friends　sought　a
renewal。　Jackson　believed　the　Bank　an　enemy　of　the　Republic；　as
its　officers　were　anti…Jacksonians；　and　he　promptly　vetoed　the
bill　extending　the　charter。　The　second　issue　was　the　tariff。
Protection　was　not　new；　but　Clay　adroitly　renamed　it；　calling　it
〃the　American　system。〃　It　was　popular　in　the　manufacturing　towns
and　in　portions　of　the　agricultural　communities；　but　was　bitterly
opposed　by　the　slave…owning　States。

A　third　issue　dealt　with　internal　improvements。　All　parts　of　the
country　were　feeling　the　need　of　better　means　of　communication；
especially　between　the　West　and　the　East。　Canals　and　turnpikes
were　projected　in　every　direction。　Clay；　whose　imagination　was
fervid；　advocated　a　vast　system　of　canals　and　roads　financed　by
national　aid。　But　the　doctrine　of　states…rights　answered　that　the
Federal　Government　had　no　power　to　enter　a　State；　even　to　spend
money　on　improvements；　without　the　consent　of　that　State。　And；　at
all　events；　for　Clay　to　espouse　was　for　Jackson　to　oppose。

These　were　the　more　important　immediate　issues　of　the　conflict
between　Clay's　Whigs　and　Jackson's　Democrats；　though　it　must　be
acknowledged　that　the　personalities　of　the　leaders　were　quite　as
much　an　issue　as　any　of　the　policies　which　they　espoused。　The
Whigs；　however；　proved　unequal　to　the　task　of　unhorsing　their
foes；　and；　with　two　exceptions；　the　Democrats　elected　every
President　from　Jackson　to　Lincoln。　The　exceptions　were　William
Henry　Harrison　and　Zachary　Taylor；　both　of　whom　were　elected　on
their　war　records　and　both　of　whom　died　soon　after　their
inauguration。　Tyler；　who　as　Vice…President　succeeded　General
Harrison；　soon　estranged　the　Whigs；　so　that　the　Democratic
triumph　was　in　effect　continuous　over　a　period　of　thirty　years。

Meanwhile；　however；　another　issue　was　shaping　the　destiny　of
parties　and　of　the　nation。　It　was　an　issue　that　politicians
dodged　and　candidates　evaded；　that　all　parties　avoided；　that
publicists　feared；　and　that　presidents　and　congressmen　tried　to
hide　under　the　tenuous　fabric　of　their　compromises　promises。　But
it　was　an　issue　that　persisted　in　keeping　alive　and　that　would
not　down；　for　it　was　an　issue　between　right　and　wrong。　Three
times　the　great　Clay　maneuvered　to　outflank　his　opponents　over
the　smoldering　fires　of　the　slaver　issue；　but　he　died　before　the
repeal　of　the　Missouri　Compromise　gave　the　death…blow　to　his
loosely　gathered　coalition。　Webster；　too；　and　Calhoun；　the　other
members　of　that　brilliant　trinity　which　represented　the　genius　of
Constitutional　Unionism；　of　States　Rights；　and　of　Conciliation；
passed　away　before　the　issue　was　squarely　faced　by　a　new　party
organized　for　the　purpose　of　opposing　the　further　expansion　of
slavery。

This　new　organization；　the　Republican　party；　rapidly　assumed　form
and　solidarity。　It　was　composed　of　Northern　Whigs；　of
anti…slavery　Democrats；　and　of　members　of　several　minor　groups；
such　as　the　Know…Nothing　or　American　party；　the　Liberty　party；
and　included　as　well　some　of　the　despised　Abolitionists。　The　vote
for　Fremont；　its　first　presidential　candidate；　in　1866；　showed　it
to　be　a　sectional　party；　confined　to　the　North。　But　the　definite
recognition　of　slavery　as　an　issue　by　an　opposition　party　had　a
profound　effect　upon　the　Democrats。　Their　Southern　wing　now
promptly　assumed　an　uncompromising　attitude；　which；　in　1860；
split　the　party　into　factions。　The　Southern　wing　named
Breckinridge；　the　Northern　wing　named　Stephen　A。　Douglas；　while
many　Democrats　as　well　as　Whigs　took　refuge　in　a　third　party；
calling　itself　the　Constitutional　Union；　which　named　John　Bell。
This　division　cost　the　Democrats　the　election；　for；　under　the
unique　and　inspiring　leadership　of　Abraham　Lincoln；　the
Republicans　rallied　the　anti…slavery　forces　of　the　North　and　won。

Slavery　not　only　racked　the　parties　and　caused　new　alignments；　it
racked　and　split　the　Union。　It　is　one　of　the　remarkable　phenomena
of　our　political　history　that　the　Civil　War　did　not　destroy　the
Democratic　party；　though　the　Southern　chieftains　of　that　party
utterly　lost　their　cause。　The　reason　is　that　the　party　never　was
as　purely　a　Southern　as　the　Republican　was　a　Northern　party。
Moreover；　the　arrogance　and　blunders　of　the　Republican　leaders
during　the　days　of　Reconstruction　helped　to　keep　it　alive。　A
baneful　political　heritage　has　been　handed　down　to　us　from　the
Civil　Warthe　solid　South。　It　overturns　the　national　balance　of
parties；　perpetuates　a　pernicious　sectionalism；　and　deprives　the
South　of　that　bipartizan　rivalry　which　keeps　open　the　currents　of
political　life。

Since　the　Civil　War　the　struggle　between　the　two　dominant　parties
has　been　largely　a　struggle　between　the　Ins　and　the　Outs。　The
issues　that　have　divided　them　have　been　more　apparent　than　real。
The　tariff；　the　civil　service；　the　trusts；　and　the　long　list　of
other　〃issues〃　do　not　denote　fundamental　differences；　but　only
variations　of　degree。　Never　in　any　election　during　this　long
interval　has　there　been　definitely　at　stake　a　great　national
principle；　save　for　the　currency　issue　of　1896　and　the　colonial
question　following　the　War　with　Spain。　The　revolt　of　the
Progressives　in　1912　had　a　character　of　its　own；　but　neither　of
the　old　parties　squarely　joined　issue　with　the　Progressives　in
the　contest　which　followed。　The　presidential　campaign　of　1916
afforded　an　opportunity　to　place　on　trial　before　the　people　a
great　cause；　for　there　undoubtedly　existed　then　in　the　country
two　great　and　opposing　sides　of　public　opinionone　for　and　the
other　against　war　with　Germany。　Here　again；　however；　the　issue
was　not　joined　but　was　adroitly　evaded　by　both　the　candidates。

None　the　less　there　has　been　a　difference　between　the　two　great
parties。　The　Republican　party　has　been　avowedly　nationalistic；
imperialistic；　and　in　favor　of　a　vigorous　constructive　foreign
policy。　The　Democratic　party　has　generally　accepted　the　lukewarm
international　policy　of　Jefferson　and　the　exaltation　of　the
locality　and　the　plain　individual　as　championed　by　Jackson。　Thus；
though　in　a　somewhat　intangible　and　variable　form；　the　doctrinal
distinctions　between　Hamilton　and　Jefferson　have　survived。

In　the　emergence　of　new　issues；　new　parties　are　born。　But　it　is
one　of　the　singular　characteristics　of　the　American　party　system
that　third　parties　are　abortive。　Their　adherents　serve　mainly　as
evangelists；　crying　their　social　and　economic　gospel　in　the
political　wilderness。　If　the　issues　are　vital；　they　are　gradually
absorbed　by　the　older　parties。

Before　the　Civil　War　several　sporadic　parties　were　formed。　The
most　unique　was　the　Anti…Masonic　party。　It　flourished　on　the
hysteria　caused　by　the　abduction　of　William　Morgan　of　Batavia；　in
western　New　York；　in　1826。　Morgan　had　written　a　book　purporting
to　lay　bare　the　secrets　of　Freemasonry。　His　mysterious
disappearance　was　laid　at　the　doors　of　leading　Freemasons；　and　it
was　alleged　that　members　of　this　order　placed　their　secret
obligations　above　their　duties　as　citizens　and　were　hence　unfit
for　public　office。　The　movement　became　impressive　in
Pennsylvania；　Vermont；　Massachusetts；　Ohio；　and　New　York。　It
served　to　introduce　Seward　and　Fillmore　into　politics。　Even　a
national　party　was　organized；　and　William　Wirt；　of　Maryland；　a
distinguished　lawyer；　was　nominated　for　President。　He　received；
however；　only　the　electoral　votes　of　Vermont。　The　excitement　soon
cooled；　and　the　party　disappeared。

The　American　or　Know…Nothing　party　had　for　its　slogan　〃America
for　Americans；〃　and　was　a　considerable　factor　in　certain
localities；　especially　in　New　York　and　the　Middle　States；　from
1853　to　1856。　The　Free　Soil　party；　espousing　the　cause　of　slavery
restriction；　named　Martin　Van　Buren　as　its　presidential　candidate
and　polled　enough　votes　in　the　election　of　1848　to　defeat　Cass；
the　Democratic　candidate。　It　did　not　survive　the　election　of
1852；　but　its　essential　principle　was　adopted　by　the　Republican
party。

Since　the　Civil　War；　the　currency　question　has　twice　given　life
to　third…party　movements。　The　Greenbacks　of　1876…1884　and　the
Populists　of　the　90's　were　both　of　the　West。　Both　carried　on　for
a　few　years　a　vigorous　crusade；　and　both　were　absorbed　by　the
older　parties　as　the　currency　question　assumed　concrete　form　and
became　g　commanding　political　issue。　Since　1872；　the
Prohibitionists　have　named　national　tickets。　Their　question；
which　was　always　dodged　by　the　dominant　parties；　is　now　rapidly
nearing　a　solution。

The　one　apparently　unreconcilable　element　in　our　political　life
is　the　socialistic　or　labor　party。　Never　of　great　importance　in
any　national　election；　the　various　labor　parties　have　been　of
considerable　influence　in　local　politics。　Because　of　its
magnitude；　the　labor　vote　has　always　been　courted　by　Democrats
and　Republicans　with　equal　ardor　but　with　varying　success。



CHAPTER　II。　THE　RISE　OF　THE　MACHINE

Ideas　or　principles　alone；　however　eloquently　and　insistently
proclaimed；　will　not　make　a　party。　There　must　be　organization。
Thus　we　have　two　distinct　practical　phases　of　American　party
politics：　one　regards　the　party　as　an　agency　of　the　electorate；　a
necessary　organ　of　democracy；　the　other；　the　party　as　an
organization；　an　army　determined　to　achieve　certain　conquests。
Every　party　has；　therefore；　two　aspects；　each　attracting　a
different　kind　of　person：　one　kind　allured　by　the　principles
espoused；　the　other；　by　the　opportunities　of　place　and　personal
gain　in　the　organization。　The　one　kind　typifies　the　body　of
voters；　the　other　the　dominant　minority　of　the　party。

When　one　speaks；　then；　of　a　party　in　America；　he　embraces　in　that
term：　first；　the　tenets　or　platform　for　which　the　party　assumes
to　stand　（i。e。；　principles　that　may　have　been　wrought　out　of
experience；　may　have　been　created　by　public　opinion；　or　were
perhaps　merely　made　out　of　hand　by　manipulators）；　secondly；　the
voters　who　profess　attachment　to　these　principles；　and　thirdly；
the　political　expert；　the　politician　with　his　organization　or
machine。　Between　the　expert　and　the　great　following　are　many
gradations　of　party　activity；　from　the　occasional　volunteer　to
the　chieftain　who　devotes　all　his　time　to　〃politics。〃

It　was　discovered　very　early　in　American　experience　that　without
organization　issues　would　disintegrate　and　principles　remain　but
scintillating　axioms。