the boss and the machine-第20章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


member　of　Congress　should　receive　a　civil　appointment　〃under　the
authority　of　the　United　States　until　the　expiration　of　the
presidential　term　in　which　such　person　shall　have　served　as
senator　or　representative。〃　An　amendment　was　offered　by　Josiah
Quincy；　making　ineligible　to　appointment　the　relations　by　blood
or　marriage　of　any　senator　or　representative。　Nepotism　was
considered　the　curse　of　the　civil　service；　and　for　twenty　years
similar　amendments　were　discussed　at　almost　every　session　of
Congress。　John　Quincy　Adams　said　that　half　of　the　members　wanted
office；　and　the　other　half　wanted　office　for　their　relatives。

In　1820　the　Four　Years'　Act　substituted　a　four…year　tenure　of
office；　in　place　of　a　term　at　the　pleasure　of　the　President；　for
most　of　the　federal　appointments。　The　principal　argument　urged　in
favor　of　the　law　was　that　unsatisfactory　civil　servants　could
easily　be　dropped　without　reflection　on　their　character。
Defalcations　had　been　discovered　to　the　amount　of　nearly　a
million　dollars；　due　mainly　to　carelessness　and　gross
inefficiency。　It　was　further　argued　that　any　efficient　incumbent
need　not　be　disquieted；　for　he　would　be　reappointed。　The　law；
however；　fulfilled　Jefferson's　prophecy：　it　kept　〃in　constant
excitement　all　the　hungry　cormorants　for　office。〃

What　Jefferson　began；　Jackson　consummated。　The　stage　was　now　set
for　Democracy。　Public　office　had　been　marshaled　as　a　force　in
party　maneuver。　In　his　first　annual　message；　Jackson　announced
his　philosophy：

〃There　are　perhaps　few　men　who　can　for　any　great　length　of　time
enjoy　office　and　power　without　being　more　or　less　under　the
influence　of　feelings　unfavorable　to　the　faithful　discharge　of
their　public　duties　。。。。　Office　is　considered　as　a　species　of
property；　and　government　rather　as　a　means　of　promoting
individual　interests　than　as　an　instrument　created　solely　for　the
service　of　the　people。　Corruption　in　some；　and　in　others　a
perversion　of　correct　feelings　and　principles；　divert　government
from　its　legitimate　ends　and　make　it　an　engine　for　the　support　of
the　few　at　the　expense　of　the　many。　The　duties　of　all　public
offices　are；　or　at　least　admit　of　being　made；　so　plain；　so　simple
that　men　of　intelligence　may　readily　qualify　themselves　for　their
performance　。　。　。　。　In　a　country　where　offices　are　created　solely
for　the　benefit　of　the　people；　no　one　man　has　any　more　intrinsic
right　to　official　station　than　another。〃

The　Senate　refused　Jackson's　request　for　an　extension　of　the　Four
Years'　law　to　cover　all　positions　in　the　civil　service。　It　also
refused　to　confirm　some　of　his　appointments；　notably　that　of　Van
Buren　as　minister　to　Great　Britain。　The　debate　upon　this
appointment　gave　the　spoilsman　an　epigram。　Clay　with　directness
pointed　to　Van　Buren　as　the　introducer　〃of　the　odious　system　of
proscription　for　the　exercise　of　the　elective　franchise　in　the
government　of　the　United　States。〃　He　continued：　〃I　understand　it
is　the　system　on　which　the　party　in　his　own　State；　of　which　he　is
the　reputed　head；　constantly　acts。　He　was　among　the　first　of　the
secretaries　to　apply　that　system　to　the　dismission　of　clerks　of
his　department　。　。　。　known　to　me　to　be　highly　meritorious　。　。　。
It　is　a　detestable　system。〃

And　Webster　thundered：　〃I　pronounce　my　rebuke　as　solemnly　and　as
decisively　as　I　can　upon　this　first　instance　in　which　an　American
minister　has　been　sent　abroad　as　the　representative　of　his　party
and　not　as　the　representative　of　his　country。〃

To　these　and　other　challenges；　Senator　Marcy　of　New　York　made　his
well…remembered　retort　that　〃the　politicians　of　the　United　States
are　not　so　fastidious　。　。　。　。　They　see　nothing　wrong　in　the　rule
that　to　the　victor　belong　the　spoils　of　the　enemy。〃

Jackson；　with　all　his　bluster　and　the　noise　of　his　followers；
made　his　proscriptions　relatively　fewer　than　those　of　Jefferson。
He　removed　only　252　of　about　612　presidential　appointees。*　It
should；　however；　be　remembered　that　those　who　were　not　removed
had　assured　Jackson's　agents　of　their　loyalty　to　the　new
Democracy。

*　This　does　not　include　deputy　postmasters；　who　numbered　about
8000　and　were　not　placed　in　the　presidential　list　until　1836。


If　Jackson　did　not　inaugurate　the　spoils　system；　he　at　least　gave
it　a　mission。　It　was　to　save　the　country　from　the　curse　of
officialdom。　His　successor　；　Van　Buren；　brought　the　system　to　a
perfection　that　only　the　experienced　politician　could　achieve。
Van　Buren　required　of　all　appointees　partizan　service；　and　his
own　nomination；　at　Baltimore；　was　made　a　foregone　conclusion　by
the　host　of　federal　job…holders　who　were　delegates。　Van　Buren
simply　introduced　at　Washington　the　methods　of　the　Albany
Regency。

The　Whigs　blustered　bravely　against　this　proscription。　But　their
own　President；　General　Harrison；　〃Old　Tippecanoe；〃　was　helpless
against　the　saturnalia　of　office…seekers　that　engulfed　him。
Harrison；　when　he　came　to　power；　removed　about　one…half　of　the
officials　in　the　service。　And；　although　the　partizan　color　of　the
President　changed　with　Harrison's　death；　after　a　few　weeks　in
office；Tyler　was　merely　a　Whig　of　conveniencethere　was　no
change　in　the　President's　attitude　towards　the　spoils　system。

Presidential　inaugurations　became　orgies　of　office…seekers；　and
the　first　weeks　of　every　new　term　were　given　over　to　distributing
the　jobs；　ordinary　business　having　to　wait。　President　Polk；　who
removed　the　usual　quota；　is　complimented　by　Webster　for　making
〃rather　good　selections　from　his　own　friends。〃　The　practice；　now
firmly　established；　was　continued　by　Taylor；　Pierce；　and
Buchanan。

Lincoln　found　himself　surrounded　by　circumstances　that　made
caution　necessary　in　every　appointment。　His　party　was　new　and
composed　of　many　diverse　elements。　He　had　to　transform　their
jealousies　into　enthusiasm；　for　the　approach　of　civil　war
demanded　supreme　loyalty　and　unity　of　action。　To　this　greater
cause　of　saving　the　Union　he　bent　every　effort　and　used　every
instrumentality　at　his　command。　No　one　before　him　had　made　so
complete　a　change　in　the　official　personnel　of　the　capital　as　the
change　which　he　was　constrained　to　make。　No　one　before　him　or
since　used　the　appointing　power　with　such　consummate　skill　or
displayed　such　rare　tact　and　knowledge　of　human　nature　in　seeking
the　advice　of　those　who　deemed　their　advice　valuable。　The　war
greatly　increased　the　number　of　appointments；　and　it　also　imposed
obligations　that　made　merit　sometimes　a　secondary　consideration。
With　the　statesman's　vision；　Lincoln　recognized　both　the　use　and
the　abuse　of　the　patronage　system。　He　declined　to　gratify　the
office…seekers　who　thronged　the　capital　at　the　beginning　of　his
second　term；　and　they　returned　home　disappointed。　The　twenty
years　following　the　Civil　War　were　years　of　agitation　for　reform。
People　were　at　last　recognizing　the　folly　of　using　the
multiplying　public　offices　for　party　spoils。　The　quarrel　between
Congress　and　President　Johnson　over　removals；　and　the　Tenure　of
Office　Act；　focused　popular　attention　on　the　constitutional
question　of　appointment　and　removal；　and　the　recklessness　of　the
political　manager　during　Grant's　two　terms　disgusted　the
thoughtful　citizen。

The　first　attempts　to　apply　efficiency　to　the　civil　service　had
been　made　when　pass　examinations　were　used　for　sifting　candidates
for　clerkships　in　the　Treasury　Department　in　1853；　when　such
tests　were　prescribed　by　law　for　the　lowest　grade　of　clerkships。
The　head　of　the　department　was　given　complete　control　over　the
examinations；　and　they　were　not　exacting。　In　1864　Senator　Sumner
introduced　a　bill　〃to　provide　for　the　greater　efficiency　of　the
civil　service。〃　It　was　considered　chimerical　and　dropped。

Meanwhile；　a　steadfast　and　able　champion　of　reform　appeared　in
the　House；　Thomas　A。　Jenckes；　a　prominent　lawyer　of　Rhode　Island。
A　bill　which　he　introduced　in　December；　1865；　received　no
hearing。　But　in　the　following　year　a　select　joint　committee　was
charged　to　examine　the　whole　question　of　appointments；
dismissals；　and　patronage。　Mr。　Jenckes　presented　an　elaborate
report　in　May；　1868；　explaining　the　civil　service　of　other
countries。　This　report；　which　is　the　corner　stone　of　American
civil　service　reform；　provided　the　material　for　congressional
debate　and　threw　the　whole　subject　into　the　public　arena。　Jenckes
in　the　House　and　Carl　Schurz　in　the　Senate　saw　to　it　that　ardent
and　convincing　defense　of　reform　was　not　wanting。　In　compliance
with　President　Grant's　request　for　a　law　to　〃govern　not　the
tenure；　but　the　manner　of　making　all　appointments；〃　a　rider　was
attached　to　the　appropriation　bill　in　1870；　asking　the　President
〃to　prescribe　such　rules　and　regulations〃　as　he　saw　fit；　and　〃to
employ　suitable　persons　to　conduct〃　inquiries　into　the　best
method　for　admitting　persons　into　the　civil　service。　A　commission
of　which　George　William　Curtis　was　chairman　made　recommendations；
but　they　were　not　adopted　and　Curtis　resigned。　The　New　York　Civil
Service　Reform　Association　was　organized　in　1877；　and　the
National　League；　organized　in　1881；　soon　had　flourishing　branches
in　most　of　the　large　cities。　The　battle　was　largely　between　the
President　and　Congress。　Each　succeeding　President　signified　his
adherence　to　reform；　but　neutralized　his　words　by　sanctioning
vast　changes　in　the　service。　Finally；　under　circumstances　already
described；　on　January　16；　1883；　the　Civil　Service　Act　was　passed。

This　law　had　a　stimulating　effect　upon　state　and　municipal　civil
service。　New　York　passed　a　law　the　same　year；　patterned　after　the
federal　act。　Massachusetts　followed　in　1884；　and　within　a　few
years　many　of　the　States　had　adopted　some　sort　of　civil　service
reform；　and　the　large　cities　were　experimenting　with　the　merit
system。　It　was　not；　however；　until　the　rapid　expansion　of　the
functions　of　government　and　the　consequent　transformation　in　the
nature　of　public　duties　that　civil　service　reform　made　notable
headway。　When　the　Government　assumed　the　duties　of　health
officer；　forester；　statistician；　and　numerous　other　highly
specialized　functions；　the　presence　of　the　scientific　expert
became　imperative；　and　vast　undertakings；　like　the　building　of
the　Panama　Canal　and　the　enormous　irrigation　projects　of　the
West；　could　not　be　entrusted　to　the　spoilsman　and　his　minions。

The　war　has　accustomed　us　to　the　commandeering　of　utilities；　of
science；　and　of　skill　upon　a　colossal　scale。　From　this　height　of
public　devotion　it　is　improbable　that　we　shall　decline；　after　the
national　peril　has　passed；　into　the　depths　of　administrative
incompetency　which　our　Republic；　and　all　its　parts；　occupied　for
so　many　years。　The　need　for　an　efficient　and　highly　complex　State
has　been　driven　home　to　the　consciousness　of　the　average　citizen。
And　this　foretokens　the　permanent　enlistment　of　talent　in　the
public　service　to　the　end　that　democracy　may　provide　that
effective　nationalism　imposed　by　the　new　era　of　world
competition。





BIBLIOGRAPHICAL　NOTE

There　is　no　collected　material　of　the　literature　of　exposure。　It
is　found　in　the　official　reports　of　investigating　committees；
such　as　the　Lexow；　Mazet；　and　Fassett　committees　in　New　York；　and
the　report　on　campaign　contributions　by　the　Senate　Committee　on
Priv