the boss and the machine-第3章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


organization　issues　would　disintegrate　and　principles　remain　but
scintillating　axioms。　Thus　necessity　enlisted　executive　talent
and　produced　the　politician；　who；　having　once　achieved　an
organization；　remained　at　his　post　to　keep　it　intact　between
elections　and　used　it　for　purposes　not　always　prompted　by　the
public　welfare。

In　colonial　days；　when　the　struggle　began　between　Crown　and
Colonist；　the　colonial　patriots　formed　clubs　to　designate　their
candidates　for　public　office。　In　Massachusetts　these　clubs　were
known　as　〃caucuses；〃　a　word　whose　derivation　is　unknown；　but
which　has　now　become　fixed　in　our　political　vocabulary。　These
early　caucuses　in　Boston　have　been　described　as　follows：　〃Mr。
Samuel　Adams'　father　and　twenty　others；　one　or　two　from　the　north
end　of　the　town；　where　all　the　ship　business　is　carried　on；　used
to　meet；　make　a　caucus；　and　lay　their　plans　for　introducing
certain　persons　into　places　of　trust　and　power。　When　they　had
settled　it；　they　separated；　and　used　each　their　particular
influence　within　his　own　circle。　He　and　his　friends　would　furnish
themselves　with　ballots；　including　the　names　of　the　parties　fixed
upon；　which　they　distributed　on　the　day　of　election。　By　acting　in
concert　together　with　a　careful　and　extensive　distribution　of
ballots　they　generally　carried　the　elections　to　their　own　mind。〃

As　the　revolutionary　propaganda　increased　in　momentum；　caucuses
assumed　a　more　open　character。　They　were　a　sort　of　informal　town
meeting；　where　neighbors　met　and　agreed　on　candidates　and　the
means　of　electing　them。　After　the　adoption　of　the　Constitution；
the　same　methods　were　continued；　though　modified　to　suit　the
needs　of　the　new　party　alignments。　In　this　informal　manner；　local
and　even　congressional　candidates　were　named。

Washington　was　the　unanimous　choice　of　the　nation　In　the　third
presidential　election；　John　Adams　was　the　tacitly　accepted
candidate　of　the　Federalists　and　Jefferson　of　the
Democratic…Republicans；　and　no　formal　nominations　seem　to　have
been　made。　But　from　1800　to　1824　the　presidential　candidates　were
designated　by　members　of　Congress　in　caucus。　It　was　by　this　means
that　the　Virginia　Dynasty　fastened　itself　upon　the　country。　The
congressional　caucus；　which　was　one　of　the　most　arrogant　and
compact　political　machines　that　our　politics　has　produced；
discredited　itself　by　nominating　William　H。　Crawford　（1824）；　a
machine　politician；　whom　the　public　never　believed　to　be　of
presidential　caliber。　In　the　bitter　fight　that　placed　John　Quincy
Adams　in　the　White　House　and　made　Jackson　the　eternal　enemy　of
Clay；　the　congressional　caucus　met　its　doom。　For　several　years；
presidential　candidates　were　nominated　by　various　informal
methods。　In　1828　a　number　of　state　legislatures　formally
nominated　Jackson。　In　several　States　the　party　members　of　the
legislatures　in　caucus　nominated　presidential　candidates。　DeWitt
Clinton　was　so　designated　by　the　New　York　legislature　in　1812　and
Henry　Clay　by　the　Kentucky　legislature　in　1822。　Great　mass
meetings；　often　garnished　with　barbecues；　were　held　in　many　parts
of　the　country　in　1824　for　indorsing　the　informal　nominations　of
the　various　candidates。

But　none　of　these　methods　served　the　purpose。　The　President　was　a
national　officer；　backed　by　a　national　party；　and　chosen　by　a
national　electorate。　A　national　system　of　nominating　the
presidential　candidates　was　demanded。　On　September　26；　1881；　113
delegates　of　the　Anti…Masonic　party；　representing　thirteen
States；　met　in　a　national　convention　in　Baltimore。　This　was　the
first　national　nominating　convention　held　in　America。

In　February；　1831；　the　Whig　members　of　the　Maryland　legislature
issued　a　call　for　a　national　Whig　convention。　This　was　held　in
Baltimore　the　following　December。　Eighteen　States　were
represented　by　delegates；　each　according　to　the　number　Of
presidential　electoral　votes　it　cast。　Clay　was　named　for
President。　The　first　national　Democratic　convention　met　in
Baltimore　on　May　21；　1882；　and　nominated　Jackson。

Since　that　time；　presidential　candidates　have　been　named　in
national　conventions。　There　have　been　surprisingly　few　changes　in
procedure　since　the　first　convention。　It　opened　with　a　temporary
organization；　examined　the　credentials　of　delegates；　and
appointed　a　committee　on　permanent　organization；　which　reported　a
roster　of　permanent　officers。　It　appointed　a　committee　on
platformthen　called　an　address　to　the　people；　it　listened　to
eulogistic　nominating　speeches；　balloted　for　candidates；　and
selected　a　committee　to　notify　the　nominees　of　their　designation。
This　is　practically　the　order　of　procedure　today。　The　national
convention　is　at　once　the　supreme　court　and　the　supreme
legislature　of　the　national　party。　It　makes　its　own　rules；
designates　its　committees；　formulates　their　procedure　and　defines
their　power；　writes　the　platform；　and　appoints　the　national
executive　committee。

Two　rules　that　have　played　a　significant　part　in　these
conventions　deserve　special　mention。　The　first　Democratic
convention；　in　order　to　insure　the　nomination　of　Van　Buren　for
Vice…Presidentthe　nomination　of　Jackson　for　President　was
uncontestedadopted　the　rule　that　〃two…thirds　of　the　whole
number　of　the　votes　in　the　convention　shall　be　necessary　to
constitute　a　choice。〃　This　〃two…thirds〃　rule；　so　undemocratic　in
its　nature；　remains　the　practice　of　the　Democratic　party　today。
The　Whigs　and　Republicans　always　adhered　to　the　majority　rule。
The　early　Democratic　conventions　also　adopted　the　practice　of
allowing　the　majority　of　the　delegates　from　any　State　to　cast　the
vote　of　the　entire　delegation　from　that　State；　a　rule　which　is
still　adhered　to　by　the　Democrats。　But　the　Republicans　have　since
1876　adhered　to　the　policy　of　allowing　each　individual　delegate
to　cast　his　vote　as　he　chooses。

The　convention　was　by　no　means　novel　when　accepted　as　a　national
organ　for　a　national　party。　As　early　as　1789　an　informal
convention　was　held　in　the　Philadelphia　State　House　for
nominating　Federalist　candidates　for　the　legislature。　The
practice　spread　to　many　Pennsylvania　counties　and　to　other
States；　and　soon　this　informality　of　self…appointed　delegates
gave　way　to　delegates　appointed　according　to　accepted　rules。　When
the　legislative　caucus　as　a　means　for　nominating　state　officers
fell　into　disrepute；　state　nominating　conventions　took　its　place。
In　1812　one　of　the　earliest　movements　for　a　state　convention　was
started　by　Tammany　Hall；　because　it　feared　that　the　legislative
caucus　would　nominate　DeWitt　Clinton；　its　bitterest　foe。　The
caucus；　however；　did　not　name　Clinton；　and　the　convention　was　not
assembled。　The　first　state　nominating　convention　was　held　in
Utica；　New　York；　in　1824　by　that　faction　of　the　Democratic　party
calling　itself　the　People's　party。　The　custom　soon　spread　to
every　State；　so　that　by　1835　it　was　firmly　established。　County
and　city　conventions　also　took　the　place　of　the　caucus　for　naming
local　candidates。

But　nominations　are　only　the　beginning　of　the　contest；　and
obviously　caucuses　and　conventions　cannot　conduct　campaigns。　So
from　the　beginning　these　nominating　bodies　appointed　campaign
committees。　With　the　increase　in　population　came　the　increased
complexity　of　the　committee　system。　By　1830　many　of　the　States
had　perfected　a　series　of　state；　district；　and　county　committees。

There　remained　the　necessity　of　knitting　these　committees　into　a
national　unity。　The　national　convention　which　nominated　Clay　in
1831　appointed　a　〃Central　State　Corresponding　Committee〃　in　each
State　where　none　existed；　and　it　recommended　〃to　the　several
States　to　organize　subordinate　corresponding　committees　in　each
county　and　town。〃　This　was　the　beginning　of　what　soon　was　to
evolve　into　a　complete　national　hierarchy　of　committees。　In　1848
the　Democratic　convention　appointed　a　permanent　national
committee；　composed　of　one　member　from　each　State。　This　committee
was　given　the　power　to　call　the　next　national　convention；　and
from　the　start　became　the　national　executive　body　of　the　party。

It　is　a　common　notion　that　the　politician　and　his　machine　are　of
comparatively　recent　origin。　But　the　American　politician　arose
contemporaneously　with　the　party；　and　with　such　singular
fecundity　of　ways　and　means　that　it　is　doubtful　if　his　modern
successors　could　teach　him　anything。　McMaster　declares：　〃A　very
little　study　of　long…forgotten　politics　will　suffice　to　show　that
in　filibustering　and　gerrymandering；　in　stealing　governorships
and　legislatures；　in　using　force　at　the　polls；　in　colonizing　and
in　distributing　patronage　to　whom　patronage　is　due；　in　all　the
frauds　and　tricks　that　go　to　make　up　the　worst　form　of　practical
politics；　the　men　who　founded　our　state　and　national　governments
were　always　our　equals；　and　often　our　masters。〃　And　this　at　a
time　when　only　propertied　persons　could　vote　in　any　of　the　States
and　when　only　professed　Christians　could　either　vote　or　hold
office　in　two　of　them！

While　Washington　was　President；　Tammany　Hall；　the　first　municipal
machine；　began　its　career；　and　presently　George　Clinton；　Governor
of　New　York；　and　his　nephew；　DeWitt　Clinton；　were　busy　organizing
the　first　state　machine。　The　Clintons　achieved　their　purpose
through　the　agency　of　a　Council　of　Appointment；　prescribed　by　the
first　Constitution　of　the　State；　consisting　of　the　Governor　and
four　senators　chosen　by　the　legislature。　This　council　had　the
appointment　of　nearly　all　the　civil　officers　of　the　State　from
Secretary　of　State　to　justices　of　the　peace　and　auctioneers；
making　a　total　of　8287　military　and　6663　civil　offices。　As　the
emoluments　of　some　of　these　offices　were　relatively　high；　the
disposal　of　such　patronage　was　a　plum…tree　for　the　politician。
The　Clintons　had　been　Anti…Federalists　and　had　opposed　the
adoption　of　the　Constitution。　In　1801　DeWitt　Clinton　became　a
member　of　the　Council　of　Appointment　and　soon　dictated　its
action。　The　head　of　every　Federalist　office…holder　fell。
Sheriffs；　county　clerks；　surrogates；　recorders；　justices　by　the
dozen；　auctioneers　by　the　score；　were　proscribed　for　the　benefit
of　the　Clintons。　De　Witt　was　sent　to　the　United　States　Senate　in
1802；　and　at　the　age　of　thirty…three　he　found　himself　on　the
highroad　to　political　eminence。　But　he　resigned　almost　at　once　to
become　Mayor　of　New　York　City；　a　position　he　occupied　for　about
ten　years；　years　filled　with　the　most　venomous　fights　between
Burrites　and　Bucktails。　Clinton　organized　a　compact　machine　in
the　city。　A　biased　contemporary　description　of　this　machine　has
come　down　to　us。　〃You　＇Clinton＇　are　encircled　by　a　mercenary
band；　who；　while　they　offer　adulation　to　your　system　of　error；
are　ready　at　the　first　favorable　moment　to　forsake　and　desert
you。　A　portion　of　them　are　needy　young　men；　who　without　maturely
investigating　the　consequence；　have　sacrificed　principle　to
self…aggrandizement。　Others　are　mere　parasites；　that　well　know
the　tenure　on　which　they　hold　their　offices；　and　will　ever　pay
implicit　obedience　to　those　who　administer　to　their　wants。　Many
of　your　followers　are　among　the　most　profligate　of　the　community。
They　are　the　bane　of　social　and　domestic　happiness；　senile　and
dependent　panderers。〃

In　1812　Clinton　became　a　candidate　fo