forty centuries of ink-第12章

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Gildas；　who　appears　to　have　written　in　such　a

Consternation；　that　what　he　has　left　us　looks　more

like　the　Declamation　of　an　Orator；　hired　to　expose

the　miserable　Wretches；　than　any　Historical　Account

of　their　Sufferings。〃



Palgrave　asserts　that　reading　and　writing　were　no

longer　mysteries　after　the　pagan　age；　but　were　still

acquirements　almost　wholly　confined　to　the　clergy。



The　word　〃clericus〃　or　〃clerk；〃　became　synonymous

with　penman；　the　sense　in　which　it　is　still　most

usually　employed。　If　a　man　could　write；　or　even

read；　his　knowledge　was　considered　as　proof　presumptive

that　he　was　in　holy　orders。　If　kings　and　great

men　had　occasion　to　authenticate　any　document；　they

subscribed　the　〃sign〃　of　the　cross　opposite　to　the　place

where　the　〃clerk〃　had　written　their　name。　Hence

we　say；　to　sign　a　deed　or　a　letter。



Books　（MSS。）　were　extremely　rare　amongst　the

Scandinavian　and　northern　nations。　Before　their

communication　with　the　Latin　missionaries；　wood　appears

to　have　been　the　material　upon　which　their

runes　were　chiefly　written：　and　the　verb　〃write；〃

which　is　derived　from　a　Teutonic　root；　signifying　to

scratch　or　tear；　is　one　of　the　testimonies　of　the　usage。

Their　poems　were　graven　upon　small　staves　or　rods；

one　line　upon　each　face　of　the　rod；　and　the　Old　English

word　〃stave；〃　as　applied　to　a　stanza；　is　probably

a　relic　of　the　practice；　which；　in　the　early　ages；　prevailed

in　the　West。　Vellum　or　parchment　afterwards

supplied　the　place　of　these　materials。　Real　paper；

manufactured　from　the　pellicle　of　the　Egyptian　reed

or　papyras；　was　still　used　occasionally　in　Italy；　but

it　was　seldom　exported　to　the　countries　beyond　the

Alps；　and　the　elaborate　preparation　of　the　vellum；

upon　which　much　greater　care　was　bestowed　than　in

the　modern　manufacture；　rendered　it　a　costly　article；

so　much　so；　that　a　painstaking　clerk　could　find　it

worth　his　while　to　erase　the　writing　of　an　old　book；

in　order　to　use　the　blank　pages　for　another　manuscript。

The　books　thus　rewritten　were　called　〃codices　rescripti；〃

or　〃palimpsests。〃　The　evanescent　traces　of

the　first　layer　of　characters　may　occasionally　be

discerned　beneath　the　more　recent　text　which　has　been

imposed　upon　them。



In　Ireland；　first　known　as　the　Isle　of　Saints；　was

founded　in　the　seventh　century　a　great　school　of

learning　which　included　writing　and　illuminating；

which　passed　to　the　English　by　way　of　the　monasteries

created　by　Irish　monks　in　Scotland。　Their　earliest

existing　MSS。　are　said　to　belong　to　that　period。　In

the　Irish　scriptoriums　（rooms　or　cells　for　writing）　of

the　Benedictine　monasteries　where　they　were　prepared；

so　particular　were　the　monks　that　the　scribes　were

forbidden　to　use　artificial　light　for　fear　of　injuring　the

manuscripts。



Most　interesting　and　entertaining　are　the　observations

of　Falconer　Madan；　a　modern　scholar　of　some

repute。　Of　the　history　of　writing　in　ink　during　the

〃Dark　Ages〃　he　says：



〃In　the　seventh　and　eighth　centuries　we　find　the

first　tendency　to　form　national　hands；　resulting　in

the　Merovingian　or　Frankish　hand；　the　Lombardic

of　Italy；　and　the　Visigothic　of　Spain。　These　are

the　first　difficult　bands　which　we　encounter；　and

when　we　remember　that　the　object　of　writing　is　to

be　clear　and　distinct；　and　that　the　test　of　a　good

style　is　that　it　seizes　on　the　essential　points　in

which　letters　differ；　and　puts　aside　the　flourishes

and　ornaments　which　disguise　the　simple　form；　we

shall　see　how　much　a　strong　influence　was　needed

to　prevent　writing　from　becoming　obscure　and　degraded。

That　influence　was　found　in　Charles　the　Great。



〃In　the　field　of　writing　it　has　been　granted　to　no

person　but　Charles　the　Great　to　influence　profoundly

the　history　of　the　alphabet。　With　rare

insight　and　rarer　taste　he　discountenanced　the　prevalent

Merovingian　hand；　and　substituted　in　eclectic

hand；　known　as　the　Carolingian　Minuscule；　which

way　still　be　regarded　as　a　model　of　clearness　and

elegance。　The　chief　instrument　in　this　reform　was

Alcuin　of　York；　whom　Charles　placed；　partly　for

this　purpose；　at　the　head　of　the　School　of　Tours　in

A。　D。　796。　The　selection　of　an　Englishman　for

the　post　naturally　leads　us　to　inquire　what　hands

were　then　used　in　England；　and　what　amount　of

English　influence　the　Carolingian　Minuscule；　the

foundation　of　our　modern　styles；　exhibits。



〃If　we　gaze　in　wonder　on　the　personal　influence

of　Charles　the　Great　in　reforming　handwriting；　we

shall　be　still　more　struck　by　the　spectacle　presented

to　us　by　Ireland　in　the　sixth；　seventh　and　eighth

centuries。　It　is　the　great　marvel　in　the　history　of

writing。　Modern　historians　have　at　last　appreciated

the　blaze　of　life；　religions；　literary；　and　artistic；

which　was　kindled　in　the　'Isle　of　Saints'　within

a　century　after　St。　Patrick's　coming　（about　A。　D。

450）；　how　the　enthusiasm　kindled　by　Christianity

in　the　Celtic　nature　so　far　transcended　the　limits　of

the　island；　and　indeed　of　Great　Britain；　that　Irish

missionaries　and　monks　were　soon　found　in　the

chief　religious　centres　of　Gaul；　Germany；　Switzerland；

and　North　Italy；　while　foreigners　found　their

toilsome　way　to　Ireland　to　learn　Greek！　But　less

prominence　has　been　given　to　the　artistic　side　of

this　great　reflex　movement　from　West　to　East　than

to　the　other　two。　The　simple　facts　attest　that　in

the　seventh　century；　when　our　earliest　existing

Irish　MSS。　were　written；　we　find　not　only　a　style

of　writing　（or　indeed　two）　distinctive；　national；

and　of　a　high　type　of　excellence；　but　also　a　school

of　illumination　which；　in　the　combined　lines　of

mechanical　accuracy　and　intricacy；　of　fertile　invention

of　form　and　figure　and　of　striking　arrangements

of　colour；　has　never　been　surpassed。　And

this　is　in　the　seventh　centurythe　nadir　of　the　rest

of　Europe！



〃It　is　certain　that　Alcuin　was　trained　in　Hiberno…

Saxon　calligraphy；　so　that　we　may　be　surprised　to

find　that　the　writing　which；　under　Charles　the　Great；

he　developed　at　Tours；　bears　hardly　a　trace　of　the

style　to　which　he　was　accustomed。　En　revanche；

in　the　ornamentation　and　illumination　of　the　great

Carolingian　volumes　which　have　come　down　to　our

times；　we　find　those　constant；　persistent　traces　of

English　and　Irish　work　which　we　seek　for　in　vain

in　the　plainer　writing。



〃This　minuscule　superseded　all　others　almost

throughout　the　empire　of　Charles　the　Great；　and

during　the　ninth；　tenth；　and　eleventh　centuries

underwent　very　little　modification。　Even　in　the　two

next　centuries；　though　it　is　subject　to　general

modification；　national　differences　are　hardly　observable；

and　we　can　only　distinguish　two　large　divisions；

the　group　of　Northern　Europe　（England；　North

France；　Italy；　and　Spain）。　The　two　exceptions

are；　that　Germany；　both　in　writing　and　painting；

has　always　stood　apart；　and　lags　behind　the　other

nations　of　Western　Europe　in　its　development；　and

that　England　retains　her　Hiberno…Saxon　hand　till

after　the　Conquest　of　1066。　It　may　be　noted　that

the　twelfth　century　produced　the　finest　writing　ever

knowna　large；　free　and　flowing　form　of　the　minuscule

of　Tours。　In　the　next　century　comes　in　the　angular

Gothic　hand；　the　difference　between　which　and

the　twelfth　century　hand　may　be　fairly　understood

by　a　comparison　of　ordinary　German　and　Roman

type。　In　the　thirteenth；　fourteenth；　and　fifteenth

centuries　the　writing　of　each　century　may　be

discerned；　while　the　general　tendency　is　towards

complication；　use　of　abbreviations　and　contractions；

and　development　of　unessential　parasitic　forms　of

letters。



〃The　Book　of　Kells；　the　chief　treasure　of　Trinity

College；　Dublin；　is　so…called　from　having　been

long　preserved　at　the　Monastery　of　Kells；　founded

by　Columba　himself。　Stolen　from　thence；　it　eventually

passed　into　Archbishop　Ussher's　hands；　and；

with　other　parts　of　his　library；　to　Dublin。　The

volume　contains　the　Four　Gospels　in　Latin；　ornamented

with　extraordinary　freedom；　elaboration；　and

beauty。　Written　apparently　in　the　seventh　century；

it　exhibits；　both　in　form　and　colour；　all　the

signs　of　the　full　development　and　maturity　of　the

Irish　style；　and　must　of　necessity　have　been　preceded

by　several　generations　of　artistic　workers；

who　founded　and　improved　this　particular　school

of　art。　The　following　words　of　Professor　Westwood；

who　first　drew　attention　to　the　peculiar　excellences

of　this　volume；　will　justify　tile　terms　made

use　of　above：　'This　copy　of　the　Gospels；　traditionally

asserted　to　have　belonged　to　Columba；　is

unquestionably　the　most　elaborately　executed　MS。

of　early　art　now　in　existence；　far　excelling；　in　the

gigantic　size　of　the　letters　in　the　frontispieces　of

the　Gospel；　the　excessive　minuteness　of　the　ornamental

details；　the　number　of　its　decorations；　the

fineness　of　the　writing；　and　the　endless　variety　of

initial　capital　letters　with　which　every　page　is

ornamented；　the　famous　Gospels　of　Lindisfarne　in　the

Cottonian　Library。　But　this　MS。　is　still　more　valuable

on　account　of　the　various　pictorial　representations

of　different　scenes　in　the　life　of　our　Saviour；

delineated　in　a　style　totally　unlike　that　of　every

other　school。'　〃







CHAPTER　VII。



EARLY　MEDIAEVAL　INK。



CONTROVERSIES　AMONG　HEBREW　SCHOLARS　RELATING　TO

RITUALISTIC　INKSTHE　CLASS　OF　INKS　EMPLOYED　BY

THE　FRENCH　AND　GERMAN　JEWSCONVENTION　OF

REPRESENTATIVES　FROM　JEWISH　CENTERSSUBMISSION

OF　THEIR　DIFFERENCES　TO　MAIMONIDESHE　DEFINES

TALMUDIC　INKSIXTH　CENTURY　REFERENCE　TO

〃GALL〃　INKASSERTION　OF　HOTZ…OSTERWALD　THAT

EXCLUSIVE　OF　THE　INDIAN　INK；　THE　WRITING　PIGMENTS

OF　ANTIQUITY　HAVE　NEVER　BEEN　INVESTIGATEDHIS

BELIEF　THAT　YEAST　FORMED　A　PORTION

OF　THEMSOME　OTHER　OBSERVATIONS　ON　THIS

SUBJECTANCIENT　FORMULAS　ABOUT　THE　LEES　OF

WINE　IN　INK…MAKINGCOMMENTS　ON　INK…MAKING　BY

PLINYANCIENT　FORMULA　OF　POMEGRANATE　INK

SECRETA　BY　THE　MONK　THEOPHILUSWHAT　THE；

THORN　TREE　HE　REFERS　TO　REALLY　ISIDENTITY　OF

THE　MYROBOLAM　INK　OF　THE　MOST　REMOTE　ANTIQUITY

WITH　THE　POMEGRANATE　INK　OF　THE　MIDDLE　AGES

THE　USES　OF　THE　ACACIA　TREE。



MOST　of　the　documents　of　early　mediaeval　times

which　remain　to　us　containing　ink　in　fairly　good　condition；

like　charters；　protocols；　bulls；　wills；　diplomas；

and　the　like；　were　written　or　engrossed　with　〃Indian〃

ink；　in　which　respect　we　of　the　present　century　continue

to　follow　such　established　precedent　when　preparing

important　written　instruments。　It　is　not

remarkable；　therefore；　that　the　black　inks　of　the

seventh；　eighth；　ninth　and　tenth　centuries　preserve

their　blackness　so　much　better　than　many　belonging

to　succeeding　ages；　including　a　new　class　of　inks　which

could　not　stand　the　test　of　time。



During　the　twelfth　and　first　years　of　the　thirteenth

centuries　there　were　bitter　controversies　among　Talmudic

（Hebrew）　scholars；　relative　to　the　character　of

the　ink　to　be　employed　in　the　preparation　of　ritualistic

w