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recognition。 It was sorely needed。 The Egyptian

manufacture of papyrus; which was in a state of

decay in the seventh century; ceased entirely in the

ninth or tenth。 Not many books were written during

this period; but there was then; and for at least

three centuries afterwards; an unsatisfied demand

for something to write upon。 Parchment was so

scarce that reckless copyists frequently resorted to

the desperate expedient of effacing the writing on

old and lightly esteemed manuscripts。 It was not

a difficult task。 The writing ink then used was

usually made of lamp…black; gum and vinegar; it

it had but a feeble encaustic property; and it did

not bite in or penetrate the parchment。 The work

of effacing this ink was accomplished by moistening

the parchment with a weak alkaline solution and

by rubbing it with pumice stone。 This treatment

did not entirely obliterate the writing; but made it

so indistinct that the parchment could be written

over the second time。 Manuscripts so treated are

now known as palimpsests。 All the large European

public libraries have copies of palimpsests; which are

melancholy illustrations of the literary tastes of

many writers or bookmakers during the Middle

Ages。 More convincingly than by argument they

show the utility of paper。 Manuscripts of the

Gospels; of the Iliad; and of works of the highest

merit; often of great beauty and accuracy; are

dimly seen underneath stupid sermons; and theological

writings of a nature so paltry that no man

living cares to read them。 In Some instances the

first writing has been so thoroughly scrubbed out

that its meaning is irretrievably lost。



〃Much as paper was needed; it was not at all popular

with copyists; their prejudice was not altogether

unreasonable; for it was thick; coarse; knotty; and

in every way unfitted for the display or ornamental

penmanship or illumination。 The cheaper quality;

then known as cotton paper; was especially objectionable。

It seems to have been so badly made as

to need governmental interference。 Frederick II;

of Germany; in the year 1221; foreseeing evils

that might arise from bad paper; made a decree by

which he made invalid all public documents that

should be put on cotton paper; and ordered them

within two years to be transcribed upon parchment。

Peter II; of Spain; in the year 1338; publicly

commanded the paper…makers of Valencia and

Xativa to make their paper of a better quality and

equal to that of an earlier period。



〃The better quality of paper; now known as

linen paper; had the merits of strength; flexibility;

and durability in a high degree; but it was set aside

by the copyists because the fabric was too thick

and the surface was too rough。 The art of calendering

or polishing papers until they were of a

smooth; glossy surface; which was then practised

by the Persians; was unknown to; or at least

unpractised by; the early European makers。 The

changes or fashion in the selection of writing papers

are worthy of passing notice。 The rough

hand…made papers so heartily despised by the

copyists of the thirteenth century are now preferred

by neat penmen and skilled draughtsmen。

The imitations of mediaeval paper; thick; harsh;

and dingy; and showing the marks of the wires

upon which the fabric was couched; are preferred

by men of letters for books and for correspondence;

while highly polished modern plate papers; with

surfaces much more glossy than any preparation of

vellum; are now rejected by them as finical and effeminate。



〃There is a popular notion that the so…called inventions

of paper and xylographic printing were

gladly welcomed by men of letters; and that the

new fabric and the new art were immediately

pressed into service。 The facts about to be presented

in succeeding chapters will lead to a different

conclusion。 We shall see that the makers of

playing cards and of image prints were the men

who first made extended use of printing; and that

self…taught and unprofessional copyists were the

men who gave encouragement to the manufacture

of paper。 The more liberal use of paper at the

beginning of the fifteenth century by this newly…

created class of readers and book…buyers marks the

period of transition and of mental and mechanical

development for which the crude arts of paper…

making and of black printing had been waiting for

centuries。 We shall also see that if paper had been

ever so cheap and common during the Middle Ages;

it would have worked no changes in education or

literature; it could not have been used by the people;

for they were too illiterate; it would not have

been used by the professional copyists; for they

preferred vellum and despised the substitute。



〃The scarcity of vellum in one century; and its

abundance in another; are indicated by the size

of written papers during the same periods。 Before

the sixth century; legal documents were generally

written upon one side only; in the tenth century

the practice of writing upon both sides of the vellum

became common。 During the thirteenth century

valuable documents were often written upon strips

two inches wide and but three and a half inches

long。 At the end of the fourteenth century these

strips went out of fashion。 The more general use

of paper had diminished the demand for vellum and

increased the supply。 In the fifteenth century;

legal documents on rolls of sewed vellum twenty

feet in length were not uncommon。 All the valuable

books of the fourteenth century were written on

vellum。 In the library of the Louvre the manuscripts

on paper; compared to those on vellum; were

as one to twenty…eight; in the library of the Dukes

of Burgundy; one…fifth of the books were of paper。

The increase in the proportion of paper books is a

fair indication of the increasing popularity of paper;

but it is obvious that vellum was even then considered

as the more suitable substance for a book of value。〃



The curious contract belonging to the fourteenth

century which follows; is a literal copy of the original。

It does not seem to specify whether the book is to be

made of vellum or paper。 In other respects the minute

details no doubt prevented any misunderstanding between

the contracting parties。



〃August 26th; 1346There appeared Robert

Brekeling; scribe; and swore that he would observe

the contract made between him and Sir John Forber;

viz。; that the said Robert would write one Psalter

with the Kalender for the work of the said Sir

John for 5 s。 and 6 d。; and in the same Psalter; in

the same character; a Placebo and a Dirige; with a

Hymnal and Collectary; for 4 s。 and 3 d。 And

the said Robert will illuminate ('luminabet') all

the Psalms with great gilded letters laid in with

colours; and all the large letters of the Hymnal

and Collectary will he illuminate with gold and

vermillion; except the great letters of double feasts;

which shall be as the large gilt letters are in the Psalter。

And all the letters at the commencement of the

verses shall be illuminated with good azure and vermillion;

and all the letters at the beginning of the

Nocturns shall be great uncial (unciales) letters; containing

V。 lines; but the Beatus Vir and Dixit Dominus

shall contain VI。 or VII。 lines; and for the

aforesaid illumination and for colours he 'John'

will give 5 s。 6 d。; and for gold he will give 18 d。;

and 2 s。 for a cloak and fur trimming。 Item one

robeone coverlet; one sheet; and one pillow。〃







CHAPTER IX。



END OF MEDIAEVAL INK。



THE SECRETAS PRECEDE ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRYEFFORT

TO IMPROVE GALL INKSVARIATIONS IN INK

COLORSTHE USE OF RED INK IN THE NINTH AND

TENTH CENTURIESCOLOR COMPARISONS BETWEEN INK

WRITINGS OF ITALY; GERMANY; FRANCE; ENGLAND AND

SPAINHOW TO DETERMINE THE ANTIQUITY OF

MSS。PRACTICES WHICH OBTAINED IN MONASTIC LIBRARIES

OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES…KINDS OF INK EMPLOYED

IN LITURGICAL WRITINGSTHE PUBLIC SCRIBES

AND THEIR EMPLOYMENTSEFFORTS TO COUNTERFEIT

OLD SCRIPT IN EARLY PRINTED BOOKSWHEN THEY

WERE ABANDONED。



IT is well known that alchemy preceded chemistry

and hence the Secreta came first。 When the formula

for making a real 〃gall〃 ink had ceased to be a secret;

chemistry was then but little understood。 It is not a

matter for wonder; therefore; to learn that 〃gall〃 ink

of the first half of the twelfth century was low in

grade and poor in quality。 It was a muddy fluid

easily precipitated and it deteriorated quickly。 A

century or more of experimenting was needed to

modify or overcome defects; as well as to gain

information about the chemical value of the different

tannins; the relative proportions of each constituent

and the correct methods in its admixture。



There is no written account of this ink being manufactured

as an industry until over three hundred years

later。 Hence; as it appears so frequently of varying

degrees of color on documents of the intervening

centuries; we are compelled to assume that it was

compounded by individuals who had neither chemical

knowledge; nor who had made a study or a business

of ink…making。 Notwithstanding which; its progress

seems to have been comparatively rapid and like the

same ink of the present day was to be obtained of any

quality or kind; whether unadulterated or containing

some added color。



Intense black or a black tinged with red…brown

characterizes the color of the inks found on the very

earliest MSS。 Their lasting color phenomena; due to

the employment of lampblack and kindred substances

even after a lapse of so many ages; is at this late day

of no particular moment as they but prove the virtues

of the different types of 〃Indian〃 inks。



A different set of facts are evident in the inks of

mediaeval times which are found to greatly vary according

to their ages and locality。 But few black

inks of the ninth and tenth centuries remain to us。

In the MSS。 of those centuries a red ink was the prevailing

one even to the extent of entire volumes being

written with it。 In Italy and many other portions of

Southern Europe specimens now extant; when compared

with those belonging to Germany and other

more northern countries; are seen to be blacker and

this is also true when those of France and England

are compared; the blacker inks belonging to France。

With the gradual disappearance of the so…called

〃Dark Ages;〃 the ink found on Spanish written MSS。

of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; are notedly

of intense blackness while those of some of the other

countries appear of a rather faded gray color; and in

the sixteenth century; this gray color effect prevailed

all over the Christian world。



To revert again to the ink phenomena of the fourteenth

and fifteenth centuries which are of Italian

origin。 In no section of that country or of Europe

during those centuries do ink creations possess; in so

marked a de

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