forty centuries of ink-第44章

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done　in　Italy　with　pencils　consisting　of　a

mixture　cast　from　lead　and　tin；　these　drawings　could

easily　be　erased　with　bread　crumbs。



Petrarch's　〃Laura〃　was　portrayed　in　this　manner

by　one　of　his　contemporaries；　and　the　method　was

still　in　vogue　in　the　days　of　Michael　Angelo。　From

Italy　these　pencils　subsequently　found　their　way　to

Germany；　but　it　is　not　apparent　under　what　particular

name。　In　Italy　itself　they　were　called　〃stili；〃　the

equivalent　of　the　word　stylus。　At　no　time；　however；

do　these　varieties　seem　to　have　been　the　predominating

material　used　for　drawing　purposes。



In　conjunction　with　these；　pens　were　used　for

writing　and　drawing；　and　at　the　zenith　of　the　art

period　of　those　days　black　and　red　crayons　were　also

used　on　a　large　scale。　The　Italians　imported　the　best

qualities　of　red　crayons　from　Germany；　the　best　black

chalk　being　obtained　from　Spain。



Vasari　writes　of　a　certain　sixteenth　century　artist；

that　he　was　equally　skillful　in　handling　the　stylus　or

the　pen；　black　chalk　or　red　crayon。



It　was　this　period　which　witnessed　the　discovery　of

plumbago；　a　mineral　which　was　soon　worked　up　into

an　entirely　new　material　for　writing　and　drawing；

the　lead　pencil。



This　discovery；　which　was　destined　to　confer　such

great　benefits　not　only　upon　practical　life；　but　also

upon　art；　was　made　in　England　during　the　reign　of

Queen　Elizabeth；　for　in　the　year　1564　the　celebrated

black…lead　mines　of　Borrowdale；　in　Cumberland；　were

discovered。　With　the　opening　of　this　mine；　the　first

material　steps　were　taken　to　implant　on　English　soil

a　lead　pencil　industry　which　in　the　course　of　time　was

to　assume　important　dimensions。



The　first　lead　pencils　are　supposed　to　have　been

manufactured　in　England　in　the　second　half　of　the

sixteenth　century。　The　raw　plumbago；　or　〃wad；〃　as

it　was　locally　termed；　was　subjected　to　the　following

treatment：　〃On　reaching　the　surface　it　was　sawn

into　strips　of　the　required　size；　and　these；　without　any

further　manipulation；　were　inserted　into　the　wood。

Strange　though　it　may　appear；　the　lead　pencils　first

manufactured　in　this　manner　are　acknowledged　to　have

been　the　bestand　even　at　the　beginning　of　the　present

century　they　remained　unsurpassed　upon　the

score　of　the　softness　and　fine　tone　of　the　lead。　Although

the　Cumberland　lead　pencils　were　in　great　demand

owing　to　the　fact　that　they　were　the　first　to

successfully　meet　a　long…felt　want；　they　nevertheless

owed　their　permanent　and　wide…spread　reputation

more　especially　in　artistic　circlesto　their　excellent

quality。



Towards　the　end　of　the　last　century　the　black…lead

pencil　industry　was　introduced　into　France；　where

with　some　restrictions　it　soon　developed。



With　the　removal　of　all　restrictions　on　industrial

freedom　in　1795；　the　idea　was　entertained　of　using

clay　as　a　binding　medium　for　black…lead。　This

method　offered　several　advantages；　for　not　only　did

the　addition　of　clay　cause　a　saving　of　a　large　percentage

of　the　valuable　mineral；　but　it　greatly　facilitated

the　method　of　manufacture；　so　that　lead　pencils

could　now　be　offered　at　greatly　reduced　prices。



By　these　improvements　a　new　era　in　the　manufacture

of　lead　pencils　was　begun　in　France。　Still；

there　remained　much　to　be　done　in　the　field　of　black…

lead　pencil　making　in　order　to　do　justice　to　the　increasing

demands　of　art　and　the　requirements　of　more

civilized　life。



It　is　true；　different　kinds　of　lead　pencils　of　various

degrees　were　produced；　but　they　did　not　comply　by　a

long　way　with　the　different　uses　for　which　they　were

needed。　The　manipulation　of　the　brittle　material

required　not　only　deep　study；　but　also　conscientious

and　skillful　workmen；　in　order　to　impart　the　necessary

standard　of　perfection　to　the　lead　pencil。



Among　the　various　German　industries　the　manufacture

of　black…lead　pencils　occupied　but　a　very

modest　place。



The　first　traces　of　its　existence　are　to　be　found　at

Stein；　a　village　not　far　from　Nuremberg。　As　far　back

as　the　year　1726　the　church　registers　mention　marriages

between　〃black…lead　pencil　makers；〃　and；　at　a

later　date　references　are　found　in　the　same　registers

to　〃black…lead　cutters〃　of　both　sexes。



The　manufacture　of　black…lead　pencils；　however；

occupied　a　position　on　the　very　lowest　rung　of　the

industrial　ladder。



But　is　time　proceeded　the　Bavarian　government

directed　their　attention　to　this　branch　of　industry；

and　did　all　in　their　power　to　encourage　it；　and；　as

early　as　the　year　1766；　a　Count　von　Kronsfeld　obtained

a　concession　to　establish　a　lead　pencil　factory

at　Jettenbach。　Later　on；　in　the　year　1816；　the

Bavarian　government　established　a　royal　lead　pencil

manufactory　at　Obernzell　（Hafnerzell）；　and　introduced

into　it　the　French　process；　described　above；　of　using

clay　as　a　binding　medium　for　graphite。







CHAPTER　XXVIII。



ANCIENT　INK　BACKGROUNDS　（THE　ORIGIN　OF　PAPYRUS）。



FROM　WHENCE　COMES　THE　NAME　PAPERFIRST　CENTURY

COMMENT　ABOUT　ITKNIGHT'S　COMMENTS　MORE　THAN

1；800　YEARS　LATERPAPYRUS　AN　EGYPTIAN

REEDNAMES　BESTOWED　BY　ANCIENT　WRITERSTHE

SAME　NAMES　AS　EMPLOYED　IN　MODERN　TIMESLEAVES

OF　PLANTS　PRECEDED　THE　INVENTION　OF　PAPYRUS

WHEN　IT　WAS　THAT　ROLLED　RECORDS　CAME　INTO

VOGUEVARRO'S　ESTIMATION　AS　TO　THE　ORIGINAL　USE

OF　PAPYRUS　NOT　CORRECTREAL　FACTS　RESPECTING

THE　INTRODUCTION　OF　PAPYRUS　BEYOND　THE　LIMITS　OF

EGYPTCHARACTER　OF　MATERIALS　EMPLOYED　BY　THE

GREEKS　BEFORE　THAT　EPOCHEMPLOYMENT　OF　IT

FOR　LITERARY　PURPOSESADOPTION　OF　PARCHMENT

AND　VELLUMPAPYRUS　MSS。　EMPLOYED　IN　THE　FORM

OF　ROLLS　AND　THE　REASON　FOR　SAMEANCIENT

MANUFACTURE　OF　PAPYRUS　IN　EGYPTSOME　OF　THE　NAMES

USED　TO　DESIGNATE　DIFFERENT　KINDSPLINY'S

DESCRIPTION　OF　THE　MANUFACTURE　OF　PAPYRUS　AND　HIS

MISINFORMATION　ABOUT　ITWHERE　IT　FLOURISHED

BESTPAPYRUS　AS　KNOWN　TO　THE　HEBREWS　AND　ITS

BIBLICAL　MENTIONMANUFACTURE　OF　PAPYRUS　IN

THE　ANCIENT　CITY　OF　MEMPHISCHARACTERISTICS　OF

THE　PAPER　EMPLOYED　BY　THE　MEXICANSMR。　HARRIS'S

DISCOVERY　OF　ANCIENT　FRAGMENTS　OF　PAPYRUS

THE　STORY　ABOUT　IT　AS　TOLD　BY　THE　LONDON

ATHENaeUMDATES　OF　THE　OLDEST　KNOWN　SPECIMENS

OF　GREEK　PAPYRIDATE　OF　THE　FIRST　DISCOVERY

OF　GREEK　PAPYRIUSE　OF　OTHER　PLIABLE　MATERIALS

WITH　PAPYRUSHOW　THEY　WERE　PREPARED

FOR　WRITING　PURPOSESDOUBTS　AS　TO　TIME　THAT

ROLLED　RECORDS　SUPERSEDED　TABLET　FORMSSUGGESTIONS

BY　NOEL　HUMPHREYSVIEWS　ENTERTAINED

BY　EARLIER　WRITERS。



THE　name　paper　is　derived　from　papyrus；　a　reed

grown　in　Egypt；　whose　stalk　furnished　for　so　many

centuries　the　principal　material　for　writing　upon　to

the　people　of　that　country　and　those　bordering　on

the　Mediterranean　Sea。　In　the　first　century　of　the

Christian　era　the　younger　Pliny　remarks：



〃All　the　usages　of　civilized　life　depend　in　a

remarkable　degree　upon　the　employment　of　paper。

At　all　events；　the　remembrance　of　past　events。〃



A　statement　which　has　caused　Mr。　Knight　to　make

the　following　comment：



〃This　observation；　undoubtedly　true　1；800　years

ago；　is　much　more　remarkably　so　now；　indeed；　in

considering　that　paper　as　we　now　understand　it

was　entirely　unknown　to　Europe　in　the　time　of

Pliny；　the　expression　of　the　great　dependence

upon　what　seems　to　us　so　fragile　and　inefficient　a

substitute　for　real　paper　appears　strange。〃



Mr。　Knight　also　says　that　the　Greek　name　papuros；

mentioned　by　Theophrastus；　a　contemporary　of　Aristotle

and　Alexander；　was　probably　the　Egyptian　name

of　the　reed　with　a　Greek　termination。　It　was　also

called　biblos　by　Homer　and　Herodotus；　whence　our

term　bible。　The　term　volumen；　a　scroll；　indicates　the

early　form　of　a　book　of　bark；　papyrus；　skin；　or　parchment；

as　the　term　liber　（Latin；　a　book；　or　the　inner

bark　of　a　tree）　does　the　use　of　the　bark　itself。　Hence

also　our　terms　library　and　librarian。　〃Book〃　is

also　derived　from　the　Danish　word　bog；　the　bark　of

the　beech。

Pliny　quoting　Varro；　who　preceded　him　some　two

centuries；　asserts　that　before　the　invention　of　papyrus；

the　large　leaves　of　certain　plants　were　prepared　so

that　they　could　be　written　upon。　Hence　originates

our　term　〃leaves〃　of　a　book　which　in　the　Latin　form

folium　has　also　given　us　the　modern　term　folio。



When；　however；　the　reed　pen　and　the　pencil　brush

and　their　kindred　substances　denominated　colored

liquids　or　inks；　came　into　vogue；　some　material　on

which　characters　could　be　inscribed　and　preserved　in

the　shape　of　continuous　rolls　for　record　and　other

uses　became　necessary。　The　papyrus　plant　seems　to

have　met　every　requirement。　It　is　a　noteworthy　fact

that　all　information　which　can　be　derived　from　any

source；　specifically　calls　attention　to　papyrus　and

sometimes　the　inner　barks　of　trees　as　being　coexistent

with　pen　and　ink。



Varro　has　been　credited　with　many　statements

which　in　the　light　of　investigation　and　discovery　are

proved　to　be　incorrect。　One　of　these　is　in　effect

that　the　use　of　papyrus　was　an　incident　pertaining　to

the　expeditions　of　Alexander　the　Great。　This　assertion

is　not　only　contradicted　by　Pliny；　the　historian；

who　calls　attention　to　〃books　of　papyrus　found　in　the

tomb　of　Numa　〃　（Numa　Pompilius；　the　second　king　of

Rome；　B。　C。　716…672；）　but　even　at　this　late　day　many

monuments　of　ancient　papyri　are　still　extant　and　belonging

to　periods　more　than　a　thousand　years　before

Alexander's　time。



The　real　facts　in　respect　to　this　matter　are；　that

the　introduction　of　the　use　of　papyrus　to　nations　beyond

the　limits　of　Egypt　was　an　event　that　did　not

take　place　until　after　the　reign　of　the　first　Macedonian

sovereign　of　Egypt；　Ptolemy　Lagus　（B。　C。　323）　when；

in　return　for　Greek　literature；　Egypt　gave　back　her

papyrus。　Before　this　epoch　the　Greeks　had　been　in

the　habit　of　employing　such　materials　as　linen；　wax；

bark　and　leaves　for　ordinary　writing　purposes；　while

their　public　records　were　inscribed　on　stone；　brass；

lead　or　other　metals。



Papyrus　as　then　introduced　into　those　western

countries　was　the　only　substance　for　a　long　period

employed　for　literary　purposes。



Parchment　and　vellum；　which　were　adopted　there

as　writing　materials　about　two　centuries　later；　were

too　costly　to　be　used　so　long　as　papyrus　was　within

reach。



When　the　use　of　this　ancient　paper　had　become

established　in　the　countries　bordering　on　the　Mediterranean；

all　the　MSS。　assumed　the　form　of　rolls；　being

rolled　on　cylinders　of　wood；　ivory；　bronze；　glass　and

other　substances。　Sometimes；　the　ends　were　decorated

by　various　ornaments。　As　a　rule　only　one　side　of

the　material　was　written　upon。　This　was　due　largely

to　the　fact　of　its　brittle　character　which　would　cause

it　to　break　if　rolled　or　bent　the　wrong　way。



The　ancient　manufacture　of　papyrus　for　export

was　carried　on　in　Egypt　on　an　extensive　scale　and

in　the　most　systematic　manner。　A　gradual　improvement

in　quality　was　the　result；　some　of　the　kinds

being　given　well…known　Roman　names　which　are