forty centuries of ink-第47章
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Every leaf designated by Simonides was
found to be imperfect at the part where the mark
was to have been found。 Deliberate mutilation by
an enemy; said his friends。 But many thought that
the wily Greek had acquired through private friends
a note of some imperfect leaves in the MSS。; and
had made unscrupulous use of the information。〃
A curious kind of document; which links the classical
times with the middle ages; in respect to the we
of parchment; is afforded by the 〃palimpsests;〃 or
manuscripts from which old writing had been erased
in order to make way for new。 A well…prepared leaf
of parchment was so costly an article in the middle
ages; that the transcribers who were employed by the
monastic establishments in writing often availed themselves
of some old manuscript; from which they scraped
off the writing; such a doubly…used piece of parchment
was called a 〃palimpsest。〃 This practice seems
to have been followed long before; but not to so great
an extent as about the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries;
at which time there were persons regularly
employed as 〃parchment…restorers。〃 The transcribers
had a regular kind of knife; with which they scratched
out the old writing; and they rubbed the surface
with powdered pumice stone; to prepare it for receiving
the new ink。 So common was this practice that
when one of the emperors of Germany established
the office of imperial notary; it was one of the articles
or conditions attached to the holding of the office that
the notary should not use 〃scraped vellum〃 in drawing
deeds。 Sometimes the original writing; by a
careful treatment of the parchment; has been so far
restored as to be visible; and it is found to be parallel;
diagonal; and sometimes at right angles to the writing
afterwards introduced。 In many cases the ancient
writing restored beneath is found to be infinitely
more valuable than the monkish legends written afterwards。
Cicero's De Republica was discovered by Angelo
Mai in the Vatican library written under a commentary
of St。 Augustine on the Psalms; and the Institutions
of Gains; in the library of the chapter of Verona;
were deciphered in like manner under the works of
St。 Jerome。
Papyrus; parchment; and vellum were sometimes
used together in the MSS。 books。 Thompson; author
of 〃Greek and Latin Palaeography;〃 observes:
〃Examples; made up in book form; sometimes
with a few vellum leaves incorporated to give stability;
are found in different libraries of Europe。
They are: The Homilies of St。 Avitus; of the 6th
century; at Paris; Sermons and Epistles of St。 Augustine;
of the 6th or 7th century; at Paris and
Genoa; works of Hilary; of the 6th century; at
Vienna; fragments of the Digests; of the 6th
century; at Pommersfeld; the Antiquities of Josephus;
of the 7th century; at Milan; an Isidore;
of the 7th century; at St。 Gall。 At Munich; also;
is the register of the Church of Ravenna; written
on this material in the 10th century。〃
The rolls and records connected with the early
parliamentary and legal proceedings in England furnish
interesting examples of the use of parchment in writing。
The 〃Records;〃 so often alluded to in such
matters; are statements or details; written upon rolls
of parchment; of the proceedings in those higher
courts of law which are distinguished as 〃Courts of
Record。〃 It has been stated that 〃our stores of public
records are justly reckoned to excel in age; beauty;
correctness; and authority whatever the choicest archives
abroad can boast of the like sort。〃
The records are generally made of several skins or
sheets of parchment or vellum; each sheet being about
three feet long and often nine to fourteen inches in
width。 They are either all fastened together at one
end; so as to form a kind of book; or are stitched end
to end; so as to constitute an extended roll。 These
two methods appear each to have had its particular
advantages; according to the way in which; and the
time at which; the manuscript was filled up。 Some
of the records of the former of these two kinds contain
so many skins of parchment that they form a
huge roll equal in size to a large bass drum; and
requiring the strength of two men to lift them。 Some
of these on the continuous plan are also said to be of
immense size; one; of modern date; is nine hundred
feet in length and employs a man three hours to unroll
it。 The invaluable old record; known by the
name of 〃Doomsday Book;〃 is shaped like a book;
and is much more convenient to open than most of
the others。 Various other legal documents; to an immense
amount; are 〃filed;〃 or fastened together by
a string passing through them。
It seems a very strange contradiction; but it is positively
asserted as a fact; that the parchment employed
for these records was of very fine quality down to the
time of Elizabeth; but that it gradually deteriorated
afterwards; insomuch that the latest are the worst。
Some of these records and rolls are written in Latin;
some in Norman French; and some in English。
The modes of depositing and carrying the ancient
records were curious; and there seems to have been no
very definite arrangement in this respect。 Great numbers
were kept in pouches or bags made of leather;
canvas; cordovan; or buckram; they were tied like
modern reticules。 When such pouches have escaped
damp they have preserved the parchment records for
centuries perfectly clean and uninjured。 Another kind
of receptacle for records was a small turned box; called
a 〃skippet;〃 and another was the 〃hanaper;〃 or hamper;
a basket made of twigs or wicker…work。 Chests;
coffers; and cases of various shapes and sizes formed
other receptacles for the records。 The mode of finding
the particular document required was not by a
system of paging and an index; as in a modern book;
because the arrangement of the written sheets did not
admit of this; but there were letters; signs; and inscriptions;
or labels for this purpose; they constitute
an odd assemblage; comprising ships; scales; balances;
castles; plants; animals; etc。; in most instances the
signs or symbols bear some analogy; or supposed analogy;
with the subject of the record; such as an oak
on a record relating to the forest laws; a head in a cowl
on one relating to a monastery; scales on one relating
to coining; etc。
At a time when books were prepared by hand instead
of by printing; and when each copy became
very valuable; books were treated with a degree of
respect which can be hardly understood at the present
day。 The clergy and the monks were almost exclusively
the readers of those days; and they held the
other classes of society in such contempt; in all that
regarded literature and learning; that Bishop de Burg;
who wrote about five centuries ago; expresses an opinion
that 〃Laymen; to whom it matters not whether
they look at a book turned wrong side upwards or
spread before them in natural order; are altogether
unworthy of any communion with books。〃
It is stated by Mr。 Knight; in his 〃Life of Caxton:〃
〃We have abundant evidence; whatever be the
scarcity of books as compared with the growth of
scholarship; that the ecclesiastics laboured most
diligently to multiply books for their own establishments。
In every great abbey there was a room
called the Scriptorium; where boys and novices were
constantly employed in multiplying the service…
books of the choir; and the less valuable books
for the library; whilst the monks themselves laboured
in their cells upon bibles and missals。 Equal
pains were taken in providing books for those who
received a liberal education in collegiate establishments。〃
Warton says:
〃At the foundation of Winchester College; one
or more transcribers were hired and employed by
the founder to make books for the library。 They
transcribed and took their food within the college;
as appears by computation of expenses on their
account now remaining。 But there are many indications
that even kings and nobles had not the advantage
of scholars by profession; and; possessing
few books of their own; had sometimes to borrow
of their more favoured subjects。〃
We learn from another source that the great not
only procured books by purchase; but employed transcribers
to make them for their libraries。 The manuscript
expense account of Sir John Howard; afterwards
Duke of Norfolk; shows in 1467; Thomas Lympnor;
that is Thomas the Limner of Bury; was paid the sum
of fifty shillings and two pence for a book which he
had transcribed and ornamented; including the vellum
and binding。 The limner's bill is made up of a number
of items; 〃for whole vignettes; and half…vignettes;
and capital letters; and flourishing and plain writing。〃
These transcribers and limners worked principally
upon parchment and vellum; for the use of paper was
by no means extensive until the invention of the art
of printing。 Some of the old manuscripts contain
drawings representing a copier or transcriber at work;
where the monk is represented as provided with a
singular and tolerably complete set of apparatus to
aid him in his work。 The desk for containing the
sheet or skin on which he is writing; the clasp to keep
this sheet flat; the inkstand; the pen; and the knife;
the manuscript from which the copy is being made;
the desk for containing that manuscript; and the
weight for keeping it in its place;all are shown; with
a clearness which; despite of bad perspective; renders
them quite intelligible。
Of the two substances; parchment and vellum; before
the invention of paper; another word or two may be
said。 Parchment is made from the skin of sheep or
lambs; vellum; from that of very young calves (sometimes
unborn ones); but the process of preparing is
pretty much the same in both cases。 When the hair
or wool has been removed; the skin is steeped in lime
water; and then stretched on a square frame in a light
manner。 While so stretched; it is scraped on the
flesh side with a blunt iron; wetted with a moist rag;
covered with pounded chalk; and rubbed well with
pumice stone。 After a time; these operations are
repeated; but without the use of chalk; the skin is
then turned; and scraped on the hair side once only;
the flesh side is then scraped once more; and again
rubbed over with chalk; which is brushed off with a
piece of lambskin retaining the wool。 All this is
done by the skinner; who allows the skin to dry on a
frame; and then cuts it out and sends it to the parchment
maker; who repeats the operation with a sharper
tool; using a sack stuffed with flocks (wool or hair) to
lay the skin upon; instead of stretching it on a frame。
Respecting the quality; value; and preparation of
parchment in past ages; it is stated in the 〃Penny
Cyclopaedia〃 that parchment from the seventh to the
t