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forty centuries of ink-第47章

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Every leaf designated by Simonides was

found to be imperfect at the part where the mark

was to have been found。 Deliberate mutilation by

an enemy; said his friends。 But many thought that

the wily Greek had acquired through private friends

a note of some imperfect leaves in the MSS。; and

had made unscrupulous use of the information。〃



A curious kind of document; which links the classical

times with the middle ages; in respect to the we

of parchment; is afforded by the 〃palimpsests;〃 or

manuscripts from which old writing had been erased

in order to make way for new。 A well…prepared leaf

of parchment was so costly an article in the middle

ages; that the transcribers who were employed by the

monastic establishments in writing often availed themselves

of some old manuscript; from which they scraped

off the writing; such a doubly…used piece of parchment

was called a 〃palimpsest。〃 This practice seems

to have been followed long before; but not to so great

an extent as about the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries;

at which time there were persons regularly

employed as 〃parchment…restorers。〃 The transcribers

had a regular kind of knife; with which they scratched

out the old writing; and they rubbed the surface

with powdered pumice stone; to prepare it for receiving

the new ink。 So common was this practice that

when one of the emperors of Germany established

the office of imperial notary; it was one of the articles

or conditions attached to the holding of the office that

the notary should not use 〃scraped vellum〃 in drawing

deeds。 Sometimes the original writing; by a

careful treatment of the parchment; has been so far

restored as to be visible; and it is found to be parallel;

diagonal; and sometimes at right angles to the writing

afterwards introduced。 In many cases the ancient

writing restored beneath is found to be infinitely

more valuable than the monkish legends written afterwards。



Cicero's De Republica was discovered by Angelo

Mai in the Vatican library written under a commentary

of St。 Augustine on the Psalms; and the Institutions

of Gains; in the library of the chapter of Verona;

were deciphered in like manner under the works of

St。 Jerome。



Papyrus; parchment; and vellum were sometimes

used together in the MSS。 books。 Thompson; author

of 〃Greek and Latin Palaeography;〃 observes:



〃Examples; made up in book form; sometimes

with a few vellum leaves incorporated to give stability;

are found in different libraries of Europe。

They are: The Homilies of St。 Avitus; of the 6th

century; at Paris; Sermons and Epistles of St。 Augustine;

of the 6th or 7th century; at Paris and

Genoa; works of Hilary; of the 6th century; at

Vienna; fragments of the Digests; of the 6th

century; at Pommersfeld; the Antiquities of Josephus;

of the 7th century; at Milan; an Isidore;

of the 7th century; at St。 Gall。 At Munich; also;

is the register of the Church of Ravenna; written

on this material in the 10th century。〃



The rolls and records connected with the early

parliamentary and legal proceedings in England furnish

interesting examples of the use of parchment in writing。

The 〃Records;〃 so often alluded to in such

matters; are statements or details; written upon rolls

of parchment; of the proceedings in those higher

courts of law which are distinguished as 〃Courts of

Record。〃 It has been stated that 〃our stores of public

records are justly reckoned to excel in age; beauty;

correctness; and authority whatever the choicest archives

abroad can boast of the like sort。〃



The records are generally made of several skins or

sheets of parchment or vellum; each sheet being about

three feet long and often nine to fourteen inches in

width。 They are either all fastened together at one

end; so as to form a kind of book; or are stitched end

to end; so as to constitute an extended roll。 These

two methods appear each to have had its particular

advantages; according to the way in which; and the

time at which; the manuscript was filled up。 Some

of the records of the former of these two kinds contain

so many skins of parchment that they form a

huge roll equal in size to a large bass drum; and

requiring the strength of two men to lift them。 Some

of these on the continuous plan are also said to be of

immense size; one; of modern date; is nine hundred

feet in length and employs a man three hours to unroll

it。 The invaluable old record; known by the

name of 〃Doomsday Book;〃 is shaped like a book;

and is much more convenient to open than most of

the others。 Various other legal documents; to an immense

amount; are 〃filed;〃 or fastened together by

a string passing through them。



It seems a very strange contradiction; but it is positively

asserted as a fact; that the parchment employed

for these records was of very fine quality down to the

time of Elizabeth; but that it gradually deteriorated

afterwards; insomuch that the latest are the worst。

Some of these records and rolls are written in Latin;

some in Norman French; and some in English。



The modes of depositing and carrying the ancient

records were curious; and there seems to have been no

very definite arrangement in this respect。 Great numbers

were kept in pouches or bags made of leather;

canvas; cordovan; or buckram; they were tied like

modern reticules。 When such pouches have escaped

damp they have preserved the parchment records for

centuries perfectly clean and uninjured。 Another kind

of receptacle for records was a small turned box; called

a 〃skippet;〃 and another was the 〃hanaper;〃 or hamper;

a basket made of twigs or wicker…work。 Chests;

coffers; and cases of various shapes and sizes formed

other receptacles for the records。 The mode of finding

the particular document required was not by a

system of paging and an index; as in a modern book;

because the arrangement of the written sheets did not

admit of this; but there were letters; signs; and inscriptions;

or labels for this purpose; they constitute

an odd assemblage; comprising ships; scales; balances;

castles; plants; animals; etc。; in most instances the

signs or symbols bear some analogy; or supposed analogy;

with the subject of the record; such as an oak

on a record relating to the forest laws; a head in a cowl

on one relating to a monastery; scales on one relating

to coining; etc。



At a time when books were prepared by hand instead

of by printing; and when each copy became

very valuable; books were treated with a degree of

respect which can be hardly understood at the present

day。 The clergy and the monks were almost exclusively

the readers of those days; and they held the

other classes of society in such contempt; in all that

regarded literature and learning; that Bishop de Burg;

who wrote about five centuries ago; expresses an opinion

that 〃Laymen; to whom it matters not whether

they look at a book turned wrong side upwards or

spread before them in natural order; are altogether

unworthy of any communion with books。〃



It is stated by Mr。 Knight; in his 〃Life of Caxton:〃



〃We have abundant evidence; whatever be the

scarcity of books as compared with the growth of

scholarship; that the ecclesiastics laboured most

diligently to multiply books for their own establishments。

In every great abbey there was a room

called the Scriptorium; where boys and novices were

constantly employed in multiplying the service…

books of the choir; and the less valuable books

for the library; whilst the monks themselves laboured

in their cells upon bibles and missals。 Equal

pains were taken in providing books for those who

received a liberal education in collegiate establishments。〃



Warton says:



〃At the foundation of Winchester College; one

or more transcribers were hired and employed by

the founder to make books for the library。 They

transcribed and took their food within the college;

as appears by computation of expenses on their

account now remaining。 But there are many indications

that even kings and nobles had not the advantage

of scholars by profession; and; possessing

few books of their own; had sometimes to borrow

of their more favoured subjects。〃



We learn from another source that the great not

only procured books by purchase; but employed transcribers

to make them for their libraries。 The manuscript

expense account of Sir John Howard; afterwards

Duke of Norfolk; shows in 1467; Thomas Lympnor;

that is Thomas the Limner of Bury; was paid the sum

of fifty shillings and two pence for a book which he

had transcribed and ornamented; including the vellum

and binding。 The limner's bill is made up of a number

of items; 〃for whole vignettes; and half…vignettes;

and capital letters; and flourishing and plain writing。〃



These transcribers and limners worked principally

upon parchment and vellum; for the use of paper was

by no means extensive until the invention of the art

of printing。 Some of the old manuscripts contain

drawings representing a copier or transcriber at work;

where the monk is represented as provided with a

singular and tolerably complete set of apparatus to

aid him in his work。 The desk for containing the

sheet or skin on which he is writing; the clasp to keep

this sheet flat; the inkstand; the pen; and the knife;

the manuscript from which the copy is being made;

the desk for containing that manuscript; and the

weight for keeping it in its place;all are shown; with

a clearness which; despite of bad perspective; renders

them quite intelligible。



Of the two substances; parchment and vellum; before

the invention of paper; another word or two may be

said。 Parchment is made from the skin of sheep or

lambs; vellum; from that of very young calves (sometimes

unborn ones); but the process of preparing is

pretty much the same in both cases。 When the hair

or wool has been removed; the skin is steeped in lime

water; and then stretched on a square frame in a light

manner。 While so stretched; it is scraped on the

flesh side with a blunt iron; wetted with a moist rag;

covered with pounded chalk; and rubbed well with

pumice stone。 After a time; these operations are

repeated; but without the use of chalk; the skin is

then turned; and scraped on the hair side once only;

the flesh side is then scraped once more; and again

rubbed over with chalk; which is brushed off with a

piece of lambskin retaining the wool。 All this is

done by the skinner; who allows the skin to dry on a

frame; and then cuts it out and sends it to the parchment

maker; who repeats the operation with a sharper

tool; using a sack stuffed with flocks (wool or hair) to

lay the skin upon; instead of stretching it on a frame。



Respecting the quality; value; and preparation of

parchment in past ages; it is stated in the 〃Penny

Cyclopaedia〃 that parchment from the seventh to the

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