forty centuries of ink-第5章

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Later　the　Hebrew　Scriptures　were　written　in　ink　or

paint　upon　the　skins　of　ceremonially　clean　animals　or

even　birds。　These　were　rolled　upon　sticks　and　fastened

with　a　cord；　the　ends　of　which　were　sealed　when

security　was　an　object。　They　were　written　in　columns；

and　usually　upon　one　side；　only。　The　writing　was

from　right　to　left；　the　upper　margin　was　three　fingers

broad；　the　lower　one　four　fingers；　a　breadth　of　two

fingers　separated　the　columns。　The　columns　ran　across

the　width　of　the　sheet；　the　rolled　ends　of　which　were

held　vertically　in　the　respective　hands。　When　one

column　was　read；　another　was　exposed　to　view　by　unrolling

it　from　the　end　in　the　left　hand；　while　the

former　was　hidden　from　view　by　rolling　up　the　end

grasped　by　the　right　band。　The　pen　was　a　reed；　the

ink　black；　carried　in　a　bottle　suspended　from　the　girdle。



The　Samaritan　Pentateuch　is　very　ancient；　as　is

proved　by　the　criticisms　of　Talmudic　writers。　A　copy

of　it　was　acquired　in　1616　by　Pietro　della　Valle；　one

of　the　first　discoverers　of　the　cuneiform　inscriptions。

It　was　thus　introduced　to　the　notice　of　Europe。　It　is

claimed　by　the　Samaritans　of　Nablus　that　their　copy

was　written　by　Abisha；　the　great…grandson　of　Aaron；

in　the　thirteenth　year　of　the　settlement　of　the　land　of

Canaan　by　the　children　of　Israel。　The　copies　of　it

brought　to　Europe　are　all　written　in　black　ink　on　vellum

or　〃cotton〃　paper；　and　vary　from　12mo　to

folio。　The　scroll　used　by　the　Samaritans　is　written　in

gold　letters。　（See　Smith's　〃Dictionary　of　the　Bible；〃

vol。　III；　pp。　1106…1118。）　Its　claims　to　great　antiquity

are　not　admitted　by　scholars。



The　enumeration　of　some　of　the　modes　of　writing

may　be　interesting：



The　Mexican　writing　is　in　vertical　columns；　beginning

at　the　bottom。



The　Chinese　and　Japanese　write　in　vertical　columns；

beginning　at　the　top　and　passing　from　left　to　right。



The　Egyptian　hieroglyphics　are　written　invertical

columns　or　horizontal　lines　according　to　the　shape　and

position　of　the　tablet。　It　is　said　that　with　the　horizontal

writing　the　direction　is　indifferent；　but　that　the

figures　of　men　and　animals　face　the　beginning　of　the

line。　With　figures；　the　units　stand　on　the　left。



The　Egyptians　also　wrote　from　right　to　left　in　the

hieratic　and　demotic　and　enchorial　styles。　The　Palasgians

did　the　same；　and　were　followed　by　the　Etruscans。

In　the　demotic　character；　Dr。　Brugsch　remarks

that　though　the　general　direction　of　the　writing　was

usually　from　right　to　left；　yet　the　individual　letters　were

formed　from　left　to　right；　as　is　evident　from　the　unfinished

ends　of　horizontal　letters　when　the　ink　failed

in　the　pen。



In　writing　numbers　in　the　hieratic　and　enchorial

the　units　were　placed　to　the　left。　The　Arabs　write

from　right　to　left；　but　received　their　numerals　from

India；　whence　they　call　them　〃Hindee；〃　and　there　the

arrangement　of　their　numerals　is　like　our　own；　units

to　the　right。



The　following　noteworthy　passage　is　taken　from

Humphreys'　work　〃On　the　Origin　and　Progress　of　the

Art　of　Writing：〃



〃Nearly　all　the　principal　methods　of　ancient

writing　may　be　divided　into　square　capitals；　rounded

capitals；　and　cursive　letters；　the　square　capitals

being　termed　simply　capitals；　the　rounded　capitals

uncials；　and　the　small　letters；　or　such　as　had

changed　their　form　during　the　creation　of　a　running

hand；　minuscule。　Capitals　are；　strictly　speaking；

such　letters　as　retain　the　earliest　settled　form　of

an　alphabet；　being　generally　of　such　angular

shapes　as　could　conveniently　be　carved　on　wood　or

stone；　or　engraved　in　metal；　to　be　stamped　on

coins。　The　earliest　Latin　MSS。　known　are　written

entirely　in　capitals　like　inscriptions　in　metal　or

marble。

　　　　　*　　　　*　　　　*　　　　*　　　　*



The　uncial　letters；　as　they　are　termed；　appear

to　have　arisen　as　writing　on　papyrus　or　vellum　became

common；　when　many　of　the　straight　lines　of

the　capitals；　in　that　kind　of　writing；　gradually　acquired

a　curved　form；　to　facilitate　their　more　rapid

execution。　However　this　may　be；　from　the　sixth

to　the　eighth；　or　even　10th　century；　these　uncials

or　partly　rounded　capitals　prevail。



〃The　modern　minuscule；　differing　from　the　ancient

cursive　character；　appears　to　have　arisen　in

the　following　manner：　During　the　6th　and　7th

centuries；　a　kind　of　transition　style　prevailed　in

Italy　and　some　other　parts　of　Europe；　the　letters

composing　which　have　been　termed　semi…uncials；

which；　in　a　further　transition；　became　more　like

those　of　the　old　Roman　cursive。　This　manner；

when　definitely　formed；　became　what　is　now　termed

the　minuscule　manner；　it　began　to　prevail　over

uncials　in　a　certain　class　of　MSS。　about　the　8th

century；　and　towards　the　10th　its　general　use　was；

with　few　exceptions；　established。　It　is　said　to

have　been　occasionally　used　as　early　as　the　5th

century；　but　I　am　unable　to　cite　an　authentic　existing

monument。　The　Psalter　of　Alfred　the　Great；

written　in　the　9th　century；　is　in　a　small　Roman

cursive　hand；　which　has　induced　Casley　to　consider

it　the　work　of　some　Italian　ecclesiastic。〃



The　learned　who　have　made　a　life　study　of　the　history

of　the　most　ancient　manuscripts；　mention　them

specifically　in　great　number　and　of　different　countries；

which　would　seem　to　indicate　that　the　art　of　handwriting

had　made　great　strides　in　the　very　olden

times；　many　nations　had　adopted　it；　and　B。　C。　650　〃it

had　spread　itself　over　the　（then　known）　greater　part

of　the　civilized　world。〃



We　can　well　believe　this　to　be　true　in　reading　about

the　ancient　libraries；　notwithstanding　that　some　rulers

had　sought　to　prohibit　its　exercise。




Plato；　who　lived　B。　C。　350；　expresses　his　views　of

the　importance　of　writing　in　his　imaginary　colloquy

between　Thamus；　king　of　Egypt；　and　Thoth；　the　god

of　the　liberal　arts　of　the　Egyptians；　he　acquaints　us：



〃That　the　discourse　turned　upon　letters。　Thoth

maintained　the　value　of　Writing；　as　capable　of　making

the　People　wiser；　increasing　the　powers　of

Memory；　to　this　the　king　dissented；　and　expressed

his　opinion　that　by　the　exercise　of　this　Art　the　multitude

would　appear　to　be　knowing　of　those　things

of　which　they　were　really　ignorant；　possessing　only

an　idea　of　Wisdom；　instead　of　Wisdom　itself。〃



Pythagoras；　B。　C。　532；　we　are　informed　by　Astle：



〃Went　into　Egypt　where　he　resided　twenty…two

years；　he　was　initiated　into　the　sacerdotal　order；

and；　from　his　spirit　of　inquiry；　he　has　been　justly

said　to　have　acquired　a　great　deal　of　Egyptian

learning；　which　he　afterwards　introduced　into　Italy。

The　Pythagorean　schools　which　he　established　in

Italy　when　writing　was　taught；　were　destroyed

when　the　Platonic　or　new　philosophy　prevailed　over

the　former。　Polybius　（lib。　ii。　p。　175）　and　Jamblichus

（in　vita　Pythag。）　mention　many　circumstances；

relative　to　these　facts；　quoted　from　authors　now

lost；　as　doth　Porphyry；　in　his　life　of　Pythagoras。〃



For　the　hundred　years　or　more　following；　however；

the　dissemination　of　learning　and　the　transcription　of

events　was　not　to　be　denied。　We　find　ink…written

volumes　（rolls）　relating　to　diverse　subjects　being　loaned

to　one　another；　correspondence　by　letter　to　and　from

distant　lands　of　frequent　occurrence；　and　the　art　of

handwriting　regularly　taught　in　the　schools　of　learning。

Its　progress　was　to　be　interrupted　by　the　wars

of　the　Persians。　Mr。　Astle　in　calling　attention　to

events　which　have　contributed　to　deprive　us　of　the

literary　treasures　of　antiquity　thus　refers　to　them：



〃A　very　fatal　blow　was　given　to　literature；　by

the　destruction　of　the　Phoenician　temples；　and　of

the　Egyptian　colleges；　when　those　kingdoms；　and

the　countries　adjacent；　were　conquered　by　the　Persians；

about　three　hundred　and　fifty　years　before

Christ。　Ochus；　the　Persian　general；　ravaged　these

countries　without　mercy；　and　forty　thousand　Sidonians

burnt　themselves　with　their　families　and　riches

in　their　own　houses。　The　conqueror　then　drove

Nectanebus　out　of　Egypt；　and　committed　the　like

ravages　in　that　country；　afterwards　he　marched

into　Judea；　where　he　took　Jericho；　and　sent　a　great

number　of　Jews　into　captivity。　The　Persians　had

a　great　dislike　to　the　religion　of　the　Phoenicians　and

the　Egyptians；　this　was　one　reason　for　destroying

their　books；　of　which　Eusebius　（De　Preparat。

Evang。）　says；　they　had　a　great　number。〃



These　losses；　apparently；　did　not　interfere　with　the

progress　of　the　art　in　more　western　countries。　Professor

Rollin　in　his　〃Ancient　History；〃　1823；　remarks：



〃Ptolemy　Soter；　King　of　Egypt　B。　C。　285；　had

been　careful　to　improve　himself　in　public　literature；

as　was　evident　by　his　compiling　the　life　of

Alexander；　which　was　greatly　esteemed　by　the　ancients；

but　is　now　entirely　lost。　In　order　to　encourage

the　cultivation　of　the　sciences；　which　he

much　admired；　he　founded　an　academy　at　Alexandria；

called　the　Museum；　where　a　society　of　learned

men　devoted　themselves　to　philosophic　studies；　and

the　improvement　of　all　other　sciences；　almost　in　the

same　manner　as　those　of　London　and　Paris。　For

this　purpose；　he　began　by　giving　them　a　library；

which　was　prodigiously　increased　by　his　successors。



〃His　son　Philadelphus　left　a　hundred　thousand

volumes　in　it　at　the　time　of　his　death；　and　the　succeeding

princes　of　that　race　enlarged　it　still　more；　till　at

last　it　consisted　of　seven　hundred　thousand　volumes。



〃This　library　was　formed　by　the　following

method：　All　the　Greek　and　other　books　that　were

brought　into　Egypt　were　seized；　and　sent　to　the

Museum；　where　they　were　transcribed　by　persons

employed　for　that　purpose。　The　copies　were　then

delivered　to　the　proprietors；　and　the　originals　were

deposited　in　the　library。



〃As　the　Museum　was　at　first　in　that　quarter　of

the　city　which　was　called　Bruchion；　and　near　the

royal　palace；　the　library　was　founded　in　the　same

place；　and　it　soon　drew　vast　numbers　thither；　but

when　it　was　so　much　augmented；　as　to　contain　four

hundred　thousand　volumes；　they　began　to　deposit

the　additional　books　in　the　Serapion。　This　last

library　was　a　supplement　to　the　former；　for　which

reason　it　received　the　appellation　of　its　Daughter；

and　in　process　of　time　had　in　it　three　hundred　thousand

volumes。



〃In　Caesar's　war　with　the　inhabitants　of　Alexandria；

a　fire；　occasioned　by　those　hostilities；　consumed

the　library　of　Bruchion；　with　its　four　hundred

thousand　volumes。　Seneca　seems　to　me　to　be

out　of　humour；　when；　speaking　of　the　conflagration；

he　bestows　his　censures　both　on　the　library　itself；

and　the　eulogium　made　on　it　by　Livy；　who　styles

it　an　illustrious　monument　of　the　opulence　of　the

Egyptian　kings；　and　of　their　judicious　attention　to

the　improvement　of　the　sciences。　Seneca；　instead

of　allowing　it　to　be　such；　would　have　it　considered

only　as　a　work　resulting　from　the　pride　and　vanity

of　those　monarchs；　who　had　amass