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心理学与生活-第100章

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distinguishes memory from other mental processes (perception; imagination; reasoning; etc。) is the belief 
that the given event actually occurred in the past。 In his novel; 1984; George Orwell described techniques to 
destroy this set of beliefs by rewriting the past to make it congruent with the present situation。 Perhaps the 
most famous injunction about memory is philosopher George Santayana’s reminder that “Those who forget 
the past are condemned to repeat it。” It is possible at this point to mention some instances of “social 
amnesia;” such as the holocaust in Germany; the internment of Japanese American citizens in U。S。 
concentration camps during World War II; or; more recently; the Jonestown massacre。 More typical 
examples of memory distortion from psychological literature es from Bartlett’s classic study of “The 
War of the Ghosts;” Allport and Postman’s study of rumor transmission; and Loftus’ recent demonstrations 
of the unreliability of eyewitness testimony。 

mon to all these examples is the susceptibility of memory to distortion。 However; the emphasis in this 
demonstration will be on ways to improve the accuracy of memory。 The earliest known account of memory 
enhancement es from the Latin writer Cicero; who tells a story of how Simonides was able to recall the 
identities of a large number of banquet guests who were accidentally killed and mutilated beyond 
recognition。 He did so by associating each guest with the place; or locus; at which he or she had been 
sitting。 This mnemonic device later became known as the method of loci。 Other memory enhancement 

strategies; many of which have been popularized by Lorayne and Lucas in The Memory Book include: 

1。 Associating what is to be remembered with what is already known–in some ridiculous way。 In 
using this technique to remember who wrote “The War of the Ghosts;” for example; one might 
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imagine a ghost munching on a Bartlett apple。 

2。 Exaggerating the size; number; or some other characteristic of what is to be remembered。 For 
example; one might remember to buy apples at the supermarket by imagining a shopping cart 
brimming over with apples。 
3。 Replacing abstract labels with vivid; concrete images whose names sound similar to the original 
thing to be remembered。 The name “Zimbardo” might therefore be remembered as “sitar show;” 
“limb cargo;” or “Z embargo;” while Joe Smith bees “Joe’s mitt。” 
4。 Substituting vivid; similar…sounding images for the original items to be remembered and linking 
these images together in a coherent story (see American States Demonstration below)。 This 
mnemonic technique has been called “narrative chaining”。 
Narrative chaining is curious because in one sense it ought not to work; the learner’s task is to recall a given 
amount of material by putting it in a context that requires first learning a much greater amount of material。 
The following experiment is designed to test the validity of the assertion that memory can be enhanced 
through learning with the narrative chaining method。 

PROCEDURE FOR BRIEF “AMERICAN STATES” DEMONSTRATION 

Subjects 

All students participate as subjects。 No maximum or minimum。 

Time required for Research 

10 minutes 

7…ime required for discussion 

5…20 minutes 

Method 

1。 Ask students to estimate how long it would take them to memorize the first 10 states in alphabetical 
and reverse alphabetical order。 Also; ask how long it would take the entire class to do so。 Ask 
students to raise their hands if they believe the instructor can teach the first 10 states to everyone 
within 5 minutes (most should raise their hands)。 Ask how many believe the same can be 
acplished in under 60 seconds (most should lower their hands)。 
2。 Read the story contained in Materials; using dramatic emphases wherever possible。 (It helps to 
have practiced this with a stopwatch before class; to ensure that the reading will be less than 60 
seconds。) 
3。 On pletion; ask the students to list the states in alphabetical order; turn the page over; and do so 
in reverse alphabetical order。 Three minutes should be sufficient time。 
4。 Go through the list aloud with the class and have students score how many states they 
remembered。 Summarize the scores by drawing frequency distributions on the chalkboard。 Ideally; 
the majority of students will recall most or all of the items correctly。 
Materials 

“Let’s start the top of our chart with an album (Alabama); and on that album see a bunch of baked Alaskas 
(Alaska)。 Now envision this album with all these baked Alaskas floating through an air zone (Arizona); but 
a voice from the air zone says enough of all these sinful baked Alaskas; there will be rain for forty days and 
forty nights so next you see yourself sawing an ark (Arkansas)。 You need animals for your ark; so the first 
one you call is a fawn (California)。 You notice it’s a strange fawn; though; because it has colored toes 
(Colorado)。 You can’t have that; so you cut them off; but then the fawn can’t walk into the ark; so you 
connect the cuts (Connecticut)。 The fawn climbs aboard; and your next animal is a woman。 Of course; her 

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name is Della (Delaware)。 Della’s wearing flowers (Florida); so she looks very nice for the manimal on the 
ark–George (Georgia)。” 

PITFALLS TO AVOID 

1。 Be sure to have students’ undivided attention before reading。 
2。 Avoid reading the story in a monotone voice。 
PROCEDURE FOR DEPTH…OF…PROCESSING DEMONSTRATION 

(Developed by Scott Fraser at the University of Southern California。)
Depth of processing and expanding memory through narrative chaining under varied conditions of
rehearsal: This demonstration enables students to pare their ability to recall lists of mon words with
and without the use of narrative chaining by repeating the words or having a distraction to overe。


It is obviously important for students to be able to recall accurately materials they have studied。 Often;
differences among students’ exam grades reflect not how much or hard the students have studied; but
rather how good their memory was for what they learned。 Are such differences in memory pletely
determined by inherent differences in native ability or are they in part attributable to the ways in which
people learn and store information? If they are built…in abilities; reflecting “brain power;” then either you
have a good memory capacity or you do not。 If; on the other hand; the condition under which you learn the
material to be remembered influenced your recall; then memory can be expanded by control of these
situational variables。


Mnemonics is the general name for techniques designed to improve recall by associating the new material
with familiar material; by using vivid images evoked by the material; or by abstracting some elements and
rebining them into a more easily remembered form。 For example:


Question: Can you give the colors of the spectrum in their correct sequence? 

Answer: Mr。 Roy G。 Biv is a mnemonic to remember Red…Orange…Yellow…Green…
Blue…Indigo…Violet。 

Other Mnemonics You Might Want To Give Your Students 

The order of the planets from the sun: “Meek Violet Extraterrestrial Make Just Such 
Unusual New Pets。” (Mercury; Venus; Earth; Mars; Jupiter; Saturn; Uranus; 
Neptune; Pluto) 

The most mon elements in the human body: “P。 COHN’S CaFe” (Phosphorus; 
Carbon; Oxygen; Hydrogen; Sulfur; Calcium; Iron (Fe)) 

The order of taxonomic classification of plants and animals: “Kings Prefer Crowns Or 
Fairly Grand; Similar Vanities。” (Kingdom; Phylum; Class; Order; Family; 
Genus; Species; Variety) 

The best metric system prefixes; in descending order: “Kangaroos Hop; Dancing 
Despite ing Motherhood。” (Kilo (thousandfold); Hecto (hundredfold); Deka 
(tenth part); Centi (hundredth part); Milli (thousandth part)) 

The order of operations in algebra: “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally。” (Parenthesis; 
Exponents; Multiplication; Division; Addition; Subtraction) 

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Pi to fourteen decimal places (the number of letters in each word of the mnemonic): 
“Now; Dot; I find I still determine to suffer fools who laugh whenever grandpa 
insults grandma。” 3。14159265358979 


In this experiment; students will test the validity of the assertion that memory can be enhanced through 
learning with the narrative chaining mnemonic method supplemented by a procedure that involves greater 
depth of processing to overe a distractor。 In addition; there will be a delayed recognition test (as in 
multiple…choice exams) to examine the effects of the independent variables on each of three dependent 
measures。 

1。 Word lists are posed of simple nouns high in imagery and concreteness。 There are two practice 
lists and 10 experimental lists; each containing five words。 
2。 Timing: 
。 10 seconds for presentation of list 
。 15…second wait before writing remembered words–this time is filled with either repetition of 
words or “distraction” task of saying “Hello。” 
。 15 seconds time to write remembered words 
。 5–10–minute delay between pletion of the last immediate recall list and the start of the first 
delayed recall 
。 5–minute wait for the delayed recall (or less if students raise their hands when they cannot 
recall any more words); fill time with information about memory processes 
。 2…4 minutes for recognition test。 
3。 Presentation of word lists ideally should be tape…recorded by the instructor with the appropriate 
timing sequences of presentation–wait/ filler tasks–recall units。 In addition to hearing the words 
read aloud; students should see them as each list of five words (written large in magic marker on a 
file folder) is held up by the instructor。 
4。 Wait/filler tasks consist either of mere repetition of the five words in a list recited quietly but 
publicly or also reciting aloud the word “Hello” for the 15…second wait interval。 “Hello” should be 
a distractor that interferes with rehearsal and leads to poorer performance on immediate recall。 
However; for delayed recall; the effect may be very different and contrary to the simple prediction 
that repetition leads to better recall。 
5。 Depth…of…processing es into play when; along with the distracting “Hello;” students are asked 
to integrate the five words on a given list into a story。 They are to perform “narrative chaining” of 
the individual words。 For example; flower…queen…army…kiss…street bees; “The flower queen’s army 
kissed the street。” 

The meaning value of the words is increased by this mnemonic device (the more vivid and bizarre is the 
story); and the distracting task requires greater effort to think about the story chain and retain its meaning 
while simultaneously uttering “Hello。” This should result in superior delayed recall relative to rehearsal 
via repetition。 This is the interesting feature of this demonstration。 If found; does the effect extend to 
recognition as well as recall? 

Materials 

1。 Instructions。 
2。 Word lists: 2 practice; 10 experimental。 Instructors should tape…record the lists and write each list ( 
5 words each) on file folders; also write REPEAT and HELLO on 

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