心理学与生活-第103章

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the　two　who　are　most　parable。　It　is　crucial　that　the　suspect　try　to　conceal　his　guilt；　pick　students　
you　believe　will　play　the　part　well　and　remind　them　to　carefully　follow　all　the　directions　they　will　
receive。　Give　one　unmarked　envelope　to　each　of　them　and　send　them　out　of　the　room　in　opposite　
directions。　Do　not　inform　the　“suspects”　about　what　will　happen　when　they　return　to　the　class；　this　
would　give　the　guilty　person　time　to　prepare　himself；　nor　should　they　talk　to　each　other　at　any　time。　
They　are　to　knock　on　the　door　when　ready　to　return。　
5。　While　the　suspects　are　out　of　the　room；　tell　the　class　the　circumstances　of　the　crime。　Explain　their　
task　and　the　scoring　procedure　they　will　use。　You　will　need　to　assign　to　students　three　roles：　
。　One　or　more　students　to　note　the　suspect’s　verbal　response。　
。　One　or　more　students　to　note　the　suspect’s　reaction　time。　
。　Two　or　more　students　to　note　significant　signs　of　expressive　behavior　acpanying　each　
verbal　response　（see　Expressive　Behavior　Encoding　Guide　and　tally　table）。　Does　the　suspect　
stutter；　answer　in　an　especially　low　or　loud　voice；　clear　throat；　cough；　sigh；　etc。？　Jot　down　
any　such　behaviors　and　code　them　as　“S”　for　a　speech　disturbance。　Does　the　suspect　shift　
in　his　seat；　cross　his　legs；　twist；　wring　his　hands　or　put　them　in　his　pockets；　fidget　with　
cigarettes；　paper　clips；　etc。？　Note　these　behaviors　and　code　them　as　“P”；　for　a　physical　
movement。　Finally；　focusing　on　the　suspect’s　face；　does　he　smile；　frown；　wet　his　lips；　close　
his　eyes；　etc？　These　behaviors　can　be　noted　and　coded　in　a　general　facial　expression　
category　as　“F”。　Code　behaviors　not　fitting　these　categories　as　“O”。　If　time　allows；　give　
students　a　chance　to　practice　their　scoring；　using　a　volunteer　“suspect”　from　the　class。　
Have　your　reaction…timer　write　the　times　on　the　data　sheet。　
6。　When　the　first　suspect　returns　and　knocks　on　the　door；　bring　him　in　and　seat　him　in　front　of　the　
class　with　his　back　to　the　timekeeper　（on　a　high；　backless　stool　if　you　have　one）　and　have　a　student　
experimenter　give　him　the　following　instructions：　“I　will　call　out　a　word　and　you　are　to　reply　
quickly　with　the　first　word　that　es　to　mind。　We　will　repeat　this　for　each　of　30　words。　That　is　all　
there　is　to　it。　Is　that　clear？”　（Minimize　questions。）　
7。　If　time　is　a　problem；　20　of　the　30　words　should　suffice；　but　pick　half　neutral　and　half　critical　ones。　
Have　your　timekeeper　erase　the　times　before　the　second　suspect　es　in。　
8。　If　the　first　subject　is　allowed　to　remain　in　class　while　the　second　is　being　tested；　he　should　sit　
behind　the　class　so　as　not　to　give　any　telling　reactions。　
9。　An　excellent　extension　of　this　demonstration；　proposed　by　Mikkel　Hansen　of　Stanford　University；　is　
to　have　students　（or　associates）　film　the　two　suspects　pleting　their　tasks。　At　the　end　of　the　class；　
after　votes　have　been　cast；　the　videos　can　be　played　to　the　section　to　dramatically　reveal　who　is　
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innocent　and　who　is　guilty。　

PITFALLS　TO　AVOID　

Do　not　get　too　involved　in　the　initial　discussion；　this　demonstration　requires　a　lot　of　time；　so　hold　all　but　the　
necessary　setting　of　the　context　for　afterward。　Pick　a　safe　place　for　the　burning　to　take　place。　Do　not　select　
subjects　who　are　very　expressive–the　guilty　one　might　give　it　all　away　with　the　first　blush。　

DATA　ANALYSIS　AND　INTERPRETATION　

1。　Half　of　the　stimulus　words　are　neutral；　in　the　sense　that　they　are　not　associated　with　any　aspect　of　
the　crime；　whereas　half　are　emotionally　loaded；　in　that　they　relate　to　some　details　of　the　crime　of　
which　you　and　the　“criminal；”　but　not　the　innocent　suspect；　are　aware。　Have　the　class　discuss　
which　words　should　be　counted　as　“critical”；　based　on　their　knowledge　of　the　crime。　To　help　them　
with　this；　you　may　want　to　read　a　description　of　the　crime　（the　instructions　given　to　the　suspect）。　
Then　have　them　calculate　mean　reaction　times　separately　for　both　types　of　words　for　each　suspect。　
2。　Mention　the　use　of　premeasured　RTs　for　neutral　words　and　its　function。　
3。　Was　there　a　difference　in　the　reaction　time　of　the　two　suspects　to　the　critical　words　they　had　in　
mon？　Repeat　this　analysis　for　the　other　measures。　How　would　you　explain　the　differences　you　
observed？　
4。　There　may　be　two　plex　effects　of　guilt　or　emotion　on　RT：　a　perseverance　effect　that　carries　over　to　
the　next　word　in　the　sequence；　and　a　heightened　variability　effect　of　giving　either　much　faster　or　
slower　RTs　to　the　critical　words。　This　would　yield　a　mean　parable　to　the　innocent　victim；　so　
different　statistical　methods　might　have　to　be　used　to　assess　the　significance　of　this　bimodal　
reaction　tendency　（should　it　occur）。　
5。　Ask　students　to　suggest　other　ways　of　analyzing　the　data　to　detect　guilt。　Have　them　discuss　which　
measures　seem　to　be　doing　the　best　job　of　predicting　guilt。　Using　the　measures　they　agree　on；　have　
the　students　predict　which　of　the　two　suspects　is　guilty。　Each　student　should　make　a　private　verdict　
and　give　an　estimate　of　his　or　her　confidence　in　the　verdict。　These　data　should　be　tallied　and　
presented　to　the　class。　（Once　the　verdicts　are　in；　have　the　two　suspects　return　to　the　room　for　a　
discussion　of　the　experiment。）　
6。　Are　the　three　response　measures　correlated？　How　might　they　be　bined　to　improve　their　
predictive　efficiency？　Can　they　be　refined？　Can　you　think　of　better　measures　（for　example；　asking　
each　suspect　to　make　up　a　story　using　the　critical　words）？　
DISCUSSION；　EXTENSIONS；　AND　EXPERIMENTAL　VARIATIONS　

1。　If　your　section　runs　for　one　and　one…half　hours　or　so；　you　might　add　one　or　both　of　the　following　
aspects：　（a）　a　passive　acplice　who　acpanies　the　killer　but　does　not　talk　to　him；　watches　the　
questionable　deed；　has　access　to　the　relevant　information　but　is　neither　a　blackmailer；　a　killer；　nor　a　
destroyer　of　evidence；　（b）　a　coincidental；　innocent　suspect　who；　by　happenstance；　does　some　weird　
things　that　involve　the　same　critical　words　but　is　not　guilty　of　any　crime。　For　example；　your　letter　to　
this　person　might　say　he　is　looking　for　the　sign　of　a　skull　and　cross…bones　on　a　letter　which；　when　
he　find　it　in　Room____；　he　is　to　crush　and　destroy　because　he　thinks　it　contains　a　curse；　etc。　These　
additions　make　lie　detection　less　easy　and　open　discussion　about　false…positives；　personal　
responsibility；　and　reliability。　
2。　Why　would　it　be　important　for　the　experimenter　and　the　timekeeper　not　to　know　which　suspect　was　
guilty？　
3。　Could　you　train　the　guilty　person　not　to　betray　himself　through　his　emotional　arousal？　Are　there　
people　who　have　learned　to　suppress　or　not　experience　guilt？　How　could　their　guilt　be　assessed？　
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4。　What　role　does　self…monitoring　play　in　being　able　to　infer　internal　states　from　external　behavior？　
5。　What　does　it　mean　to　be　“poker　faced”　or　to　have　a　face　“like　an　open　book”？　
6。　What　kinds　of　external　behavior　are　the　best　indicators　of　internal　states？　How　can　we　train　
ourselves　to　monitor　and　control　such　sources　of　channel　leakage？　
7。　What　circumstances　and　variables　lead　to　errors　and　misinterpretations　of　the　“inner　person”　from　
outer　appearances？　Also　consider　the　conditions　under　which　we　judge　a　nonparticipant　as　“shy”　
or　“bored；”　“unmotivated；”　or　“aloof；　“not　prepared”　or　“reserved。”　
8。　How　can　we　distinguish　between　generalized　arousal　（anxiety　from　being　put　into　a　novel　situation　
or　from　being　tested）　and　the　specific　motivation　stemming　from　guilt？　
9。　Sigmund　Freud　used　word　association　as　a　clue　to　detect　secrets　the　person　concealed　even　from　
him…　or　herself。　The　idea　that　repressed　thoughts　will　be　revealed　in　overt　behavior　（slips　of　the　
tongue；　strange　associations；　etc。）　is　basic　to　Freudian　psychodynamic　notions　of　the　functioning　of　
personality。　
10。　Contrast　the　methodologies　of　using　qualitative　content　analysis　of　word　associations　to　that　of　
quantitative　reaction　time　measures　to　get　at　the　“deeper”　structure　of　functioning。　Personality　
psychologists　and　lay　people　more　often　use　the　former；　while　cognitive　psychologists　tend　to　use　
the　latter。　Beyond　the　methods　of　obtaining　data；　are　there　differences　in　how　one　goes　about　
making　inferences　from　these　two　sources　of　data？　
11。　Jury　Decisions。　If　there　is　time；　an　interesting　variation　is　to　divide　the　class　into　juries　with　the　
mandate　of　ing　to　a　unanimous　decision　in　x…minutes’　time。　Ask　a　spokesperson　for　each　jury　to　
call　out　its　verdict。　Be　sure　to　have　jury　members　indicate　the　confidence　level　of　their　personal　
verdict　and　the　jury’s　final　decision。　Analyze　any　changes　in　confidence　or　personal　decisions　due　
to　the　social　influence　of　other　jurors。　How　are　explanations　for　erroneous　inferences　handled　after　
the　class　learns　the　“truth”？　An　analysis　of　the　psychology　of　the　jury　process　would　fit　here　or　
could　be　saved　for　the　“social”　part　of　your　course。　The　“Detecting　Guilt”　demonstration　has　many　
interesting　implications　for　discussing　the　decision…making　process　of　real　juries；　judges；　and　
police。　Section　leaders　should　try　to　use　current　examples　and　events；　if　available。　Local　jury　trials；　
college　disciplinary　hearings；　and　police　investigations　can　all　be　used　to　begin　a　discussion　of　the　
judicial　determination　of　guilt。　
12。　Free　Association。　In　psychotherapy；　free　association；　recall；　and　self…revelation　all　are　contingent　on　
the　patient’s　trust　of　the　therapist。　Genuine　free　association；　affective　recall；　and　the　ability　to　reveal　
oneself　indicate　that　the　basic　premise　of　“be　on　guard”　in　relation　to　others　and　in　relation　to　
oneself　has　been　loosened；　has　less　potency　as　a　maxim　in　living。　This　represents　a　momentous　
advance　in　the　individual’s　life　（an　insight　sought　as　a　primary　goal　of　Freudian　analysis）。　（See　
Singer；　E。　（1965）。　Key　concepts　in　psychotherapy。）　

13。　An　interesting　variation　to　get　at　expectancy　effects　is　to　have　half　the　judges　be　aware　of　the　critical　
words　before　the　testing　begins　and　half　unaware　and　see　if　this　condition　influences　their　data　and　
conclusions。　
ADDITIONAL　RESOURCES　

The　following　resources　contain　much　to　stimulate　discussion　of　the　psychological　issues　underlying　
various　types　of　legal　evidence；　police　confessions；　eyewitness　accounts；　lie…detector　test；　etc。　

1。　Zimbardo；　P。　（1971）。　The　psychology　of　police　confessions。　In　R。　Perrucci　&　M。　Pilisuk；　The　triple　
revolution　emerging。　Boston：　Little；　Brown　&　Co。　
2。　Barland；　G。H。；　&　Raskin；　D。C。　（1973）。　Detection　of　deception。　In　Electrodermal　activity　in　psychological　
research　（pp。　417…477）。　New　York：　Academic　Press。　
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3。　Examples　of　how　psychologists　have　studied　guilt　in　relation　to　subsequent　pliance：　
。　Subjects　who　failed　to　win　20　for　another　person　signed　up　down　the　hall　to　donate　blood　100　
percent　of　the　time；　as　opposed　to　57　percent　of　the　nonguilty　subjects。　
。　Subjects　who　thought　they　broke　a　stranger’s　camera　helped　a　lady　who　spilled　groceries　55　
percent　of　the　time；　as　opposed　to　15　percent　of　the　nonguilty　subjects。　
。　Subjects　who　knocked　over　a　stack　of　dissertation　references　agreed　to　help　on　a　conservation　
campaign　80　percent　of　the　time　as　opposed　to　45　percen