心理学与生活-第106章
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described in the literature as ethically questionable)。
2。 Freedman and Fraser’s foot…in…the…door pliance field experiment。
3。 Sheridan and King’s modification of Milgram’s obedience study
4。 Zimbardo’s prison simulation。
Subjects
15…25 students are ideal。 Four are selected to act as university research professors; each advocating
approval of his or her proposal。 The rest of the class serves as the IRB (see variations for a possible third role
for 2 impression management observers)。
Time Required for Role…Playing
20…45 minutes for the presentation; questioning and evaluation of the four proposals (5…15 minutes for each
depending on the intensity and detail of the role…playing)。
Time Required for Discussion
10…20 minutes。
Method
1。 Decide which of the research proposals will be presented to the class IRB; depending on your time
schedule。 You may want to add one or more of your own choosing or use only a few of ours。
2。 Preselect the research investigators who will argue for their proposals; either assigning them the
previous week to bee familiarized with the specific proposals or choosing students who arrive
early to the section。 In a large class; you may want to have pairs of students be a research team。
3。 Explain the role…playing scenario。 The researchers; eager to begin their research as soon as possible
with minimal modifications; have submitted a proposal for the experiment to the human subjects
mittee for review。 They have received a reply from the mittee stating that there are some
ethical (and possibly other) questions about the study; and that they have been requested to appear
before the mittee to defend their proposal and presentation strategy。 They should attempt to
defend it as best they can; given the material。 You might even inform them that their entire career
and everything they’ve worked for depends on getting this study through the mittee (with
reasonable modifications)。
4。 The IRB should read the study; each member listing questions to raise。 You may want to alert them
to some specific concerns they might miss。 Appoint a chairperson to coordinate the session。 With a
large class you might save time with two IRBs; the second one preparing the materials for Proposals
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2 and 4 while the first does 1 and 3。
5。 The first experimenters are invited to present the reasons for seeking approval of their research。
Then the mittee members raise their concerns and objections。 The experimenters have a chance
to reply; after which a group IRB decision is made。
6。 Follow the same procedure for each additional proposal。
7。 Throughout the section; you may act as moderator (or devil’s advocate) to lend support to one side
or the other if the discussion gets bogged down or is missing important points。
PITFALLS TO AVOID
1。 Be sure to create a present…time perspective of this event unfolding now in order to maximize
personal involvement。
2。 Set time limits for review of each proposal; if heated discussion arises; it is easy to run overtime。
3。 Establish the important role of the IRB and possible student representation on it; in order for the
class members to take their roles seriously。
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
1。 What is the overall verdict of the mittee on the studies in question? What are the individual
verdicts? Are there any studies that split the mittee or caused a stalemate?
2。 Analyze and summarize specific features of proposals that were found objectionable。
3。 Review specific arguments that were effective or ineffective in persuading the IRB to approve the
research。
4。 Were there stylistic or content features of these proposals that made some more likely to be accepted
than others; for example; reference to prior research; explicit mention of benefits of research; basic
versus applied orientation; rhetoric; etc。?
DISCUSSION; EXTENSIONS; AND EXPERIMENTAL VARIATIONS
1。 Does the concern of an IRB unnecessarily limit scientific research? What are the drawbacks to such
a system of review?
2。 What should the position be of an IRB at your school; i。e。; what constituencies should be
represented?
3。 How might the status of the researcher influence the IRB; and how can this possible bias be
handled?
4。 Can there ever be true informed consent for populations in coercive environments such as prisons
or for poor people who need the money they get for participating in the research?
5。 How can research be conducted to demonstrate that deception has negative consequences if it is
judged unethical to deceive subjects?
6。 What are the ethical issues in the treatment of animal subjects? (Perhaps obtain guidelines for such
research from your school。)
7。 Make connections with previous sections:
。 How ethical was the section on guilt; in which one volunteer was instructed to perform
actions outside the classroom so that he would “feel” like a criminal?
。 Is suicide intervention ethical? Should people be allowed to freely make their own decision
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in this matter? What are the limits and safeguards on what can be done under the name of
“education” or “therapy” that is not “research”?
。 Relate this section to the one on impression management by analyzing how the
experimenters tried to manage favorable impressions。 Have two student observers code the
researchers’ behavior and the confirmatory or disconfirmatory questions of the mittee。
8。 Discuss the issue of living in an “experimenting society;” in which we assume that adequate
research will be conducted before new drugs are put on the market or we are exposed to certain
products。 Somewhere in that process; humans or animals were subjects in that research related to
pain; disease; stress; and other noxious experiences。
9。 Raise the problems with “debriefing” subjects after an allowable deception has been conducted in
an experiment。 Can people really be returned to the condition they were in before experiencing an
experimental treatment; given that it was intense enough to influence their behavior?
10。 Consider the public’s positive reaction to “Candid Camera” deception episodes。 What does that
say about us?
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Baumrind; D。 (1964)。 Some thoughts on ethical issues in psychology。 American Psychologist; 19; 421…423。
Kom J。 H。 (1984)。 Coverage of research ethics in introductory and social psychology tests。 Teaching of
Psychology; 11; 146…149。
Steininger; M。; Newell; J。 D。; & Garcia; L。 (1984)。 Ethical issues in psychology。 Homewood; IL: Dorsey Press。
Zimbardo; P。 G。 (1973)。 On the ethics of intervention in human psychological research: With special
reference to the Stanford prison experiment。 Cognition; 2; 243…256。
One survey of IRB actions presents the following data; which the class might find useful。 The data are
for all types of institutions—universities; medical school; hospitals and others (2389 were surveyed)。
IRB Actions Percent
Board modified 33
Modified after an informal discussion with IRB members 7
More information requested 10
No change 44
No data available 6
Total: 100
Here is a description of the infamous U。S。 Public Health Service study of syphilis; in which the control
group received a placebo—and most died。 It supports arguments for strong IRBs。
The study was started in 1932 by the service’s venereal disease section。 It involved 625 black men; mostly
poor and uneducated; from the county surrounding Tuskegee; Alabama; which then had the highest
syphilis rate in the nation。 Two hundred of the men did not have syphilis and served as a control group for
parison purposes; 425 had latent (and therefore nonmunicable) syphilis and received little if any
treatment for it。 As an incentive to participate in the study; they were offered free treatment for any other
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illnesses; free hot lunches; and free burial after autopsies were performed。
At the time the test began; treatment for syphilis was uncertain at best and involved a lifelong series of risky
injections of such toxic substances as bismuth; arsenic; and mercury。 However; in the years following
World War II; the PHS’s test became a matter of medical morality。 Penicillin had been found almost totally
effective against syphilis; and by war’s end it had bee generally available。 Nevertheless; the PHS did
not use the drug on those participating in the study unless the patient asked for it。
Recent reviews of 125 cases by the PHS’s Center for Disease Control in Atlanta found that half had
syphilitic heart valve damage。 Twenty…eight had died of cardiovascular or central nervous system problems
that were plications of syphilis。
The study’s findings on the effects of untreated syphilis have been reported periodically in medical journals
for years。 It was not until 1972; however; that an Associated Press correspondent noticed and reported that
the lack of treatment was intentional。 Senator William Proxmire of Wisconsin; a member of the
submittee that oversees PHS’s budget; called the study “a moral and ethical nightmare” and an
investigation soon followed。
The probe did not help much; for the damage had already been done。 The officials responsible for the study
have long since retired。 Present CDC officials agree that such a study could not be conducted today。
Unfortunately; their solicitude is small consolation for the 74 of the original 425 syphilitics still surviving。
The agency is treating them for whatever other diseases or physical problems they might have; but it can do
little for their syphilis。 The average age of the survivors is 74; and the massive penicillin therapy necessary
to arrest their long…ignored affliction could do more harm than good。
For them; the PHS reversal has e too late。 But the notoriety of this study has done much to raise the
consciousness of researchers and research service administrators and legislators。
PROPOSAL 1
Title: Resolution of Social Conflicts
Department:。 Social Anthropology
Proposal: Many groups face social conflicts that; without adequate means of resolution; erupt into group
hostility and destructive behavior。 On the basis of previous research by M。 Sherif; we believe that the critical
variable in the conflict resolution process is the availability of superordinate goals; that is; mon goals or
objectives that can be fulfilled only via cooperative rather than petitive strategies。
Subjects will be housed in an environment that is new to them (a summer camp) with others who are
strangers。 This is to control for extraneous influences and prior group formation。 The subjects will be
divided into two groups; each of which will be housed separately; and led by a team of adult supervisor…
observers。 There will be four phases to our study: (1) development of strong within…group cohesion and
solidarity in each of the two camp groups; (2) creation of the opportunity for conflict between the two
groups; (3) introduction of a mon problem (e。g。; breakdown in water supply to the camp) facing both
groups; and (4) observation of strategies of resolution。
The duration of each phase will be: Phase 1…five days; Phase 2…thre