心理学与生活-第12章

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minute　details　of　the　object　under　study　

c）　Objectivity　refers　to　a　desire　to　collect　facts　as　they　really　exist；　not　as　
we　hope　them　to　exist。　Objectivity　helps　ensure　that　subjective　personal　
biases；　prejudices；　and　expectations　do　not　distort　data　collected。　

C。　Explaining　Behavior　requires　that　explanations　deliberately　go　beyond　what　can　be　observed。　
Psychological　explanations　for　behavior　often　recognize　that　organismic；　dispositional；　and　
situational　（or　environmental）　variables　each　play　a　role　in　determining　behavior。　
1。　Organismic　variables　operate　within　the　individual；　such　as　genetic　makeup；　
motivation；　intelligence；　and　self…esteem　
2。　Dispositional　variables　are　organismic　variables　that　exist　within　humans　
3。　Situational　（or　environmental）　variables　are　external　events　that　influence　
behavior　
D。　Predicting　Behavior　involves　statements　about　the　likelihood　that　a　certain　behavior　will　occur　or　
that　a　given　relationship　will　be　found　
1。　Scientific　prediction　is　based　on　an　understanding　of　the　ways　events　relate　to　
one　another；　and　suggests　what　mechanisms　link　those　events　to　certain　
predictors　
2。　Causal　prediction　specifies　conditions　under　which　behaviors　will　change　
E。　Controlling　behavior　is　the　central；　most　powerful　goal　of　many　psychologists。　Controlling　
behavior　means　causing　a　behavior　to　happen　or　not　to　happen　and　influencing　the　nature　of　the　
behavior　as　it　is　being　performed。　
F。　Improving　the　Quality　of　Life　is　the　result　of　the　first　four　goals　of　psychology。　All　therapeutic　
programs　and　interventions；　such　as　those　designed　to　help　individuals　stop　smoking；　stop　doing　
drugs；　or　lose　weight；　are　attempts　to　use　psychological　principles　to　control　behavior。　Psychological　
principles　can　be　used　not　only　to　help　individuals　live　more　successfully；　but　also　to　improve　the　
functioning　of　groups　of　people　and　societies。　
III。　The　Evolution　of　Modern　Psychology　
A。　At　the　core　of　this　historical　review　is　one　simple　principle：　Ideas　Matter。　Ideas　influence　the　
manner　in　which　people　think；　feel；　and　behave；　and；　ultimately；　the　manner　in　which　they　lead　their　
lives。　
B。　Psychology’s　Historical　Foundations　
1。　In　1879；　in　Leipiz；　Germany；　Wilhelm　Wundt　founded　the　first　formal　
laboratory　devoted　to　experimental　psychology　
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2。　In　1883；　the　first　experimental　psychology　laboratory　in　the　United　States　was　
founded　at　Johns　Hopkins　University　by　G。　Stanley　Hall　
3。　Edward　Titchener；　a　student　of　Wundt；　became　an　influential　early　
psychologist　with　his　laboratory　at　Cornell　University　
4。　In　1890；　William　James；　brother　of　novelist　Henry　James；　wrote　the　two…volume　
work；　The　Principles　of　Psychology；　which　many　experts　consider　the　most　
important　psychology　text　ever　written　
5。　In　1892；　G。　Stanley　Hall　founded　the　American　Psychological　Association　
6。　With　the　emergence　of　the　field　of　experimental　psychology；　debate　began　over　
the　proper　methods　and　subject　matter　of　the　new　field。　Two　important　
opposing　ideas　were　structuralism　and　functionalism。　
C。　Structuralism：　The　Contents　of　the　Mind　
1。　Edward　Titchener　used　a　method　for　examining　the　elements　of　conscious　
mental　life　called　introspection　to　understand　the　“what”　of　mental　contents；　
rather　than　the　“why”　or　“how”　of　thinking。　Titchener’s　approach　came　to　be　
known　as　structuralism；　the　study　of　the　structure　of　mind　and　behavior。　
2。　Structuralism　was　based　on　the　assumption　that　all　human　mental　experience　
could　be　understood　as　the　bination　of　simple　events　or　elements　
3。　The　goal　of　structuralism　was　to　reveal　the　underlying　structure　of　the　human　
mind　by　analyzing　the　basic　elements　of　sensation　and　other　experiences　that　
form　mental　life。　Titchener　hoped　to　create　a　periodic　table　of　mental　elements；　
similar　to　the　periodic　table　of　physical　elements　used　by　chemists　and　
physicists。　
4。　Structuralism　was　attacked　primarily　on　three　grounds：　
a）　It　was　reductionistic　because　it　reduced　all　plex　human　experience　
to　simple　sensations　

b）　It　was　elemental　because　it　sought　to　bine　parts　into　a　whole　
rather　than　study　the　variety　of　behaviors　directly　

c）　It　was　mentalistic　because　it　studied　only　verbal　reports　of　human　
conscious　awareness；　ignoring　the　study　of　individuals　who　could　not　
describe　their　introspections；　including　animals；　children；　and　the　
mentally　disturbed　

5。　One　alternative　to　structuralism；　pioneered　by　the　German　psychologist　Max　
Wertheimer；　focused　on　the　way　in　which　the　mind　understands　experiences　
as　gestalts—organized　wholes—rather　than　the　sums　of　simple　parts。　Gestalt　
psychology　will　be　discussed　in　Chapter　5。　
6。　A　second　major　opposition　to　structuralism　was　functionalism　
D。　Functionalism：　Minds　with　a　Purpose　
1。　William　James　disagreed　that　mental　life　was　posed　of　simple　events　or　
elements　that；　when　added　together；　formed　mental　life。　Instead；　he　viewed　
mental　life　as　a　stream　of　consciousness；　a　system　in　continual　interaction　with　
the　environment。　
2。　Functionalism　focused　on　learned　habits　that　enable　organisms　to　adapt　to　
their　environment　and　to　function　effectively。　The　essential　question　for　
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CHAPTER　1：　THE　SCIENCE　OF　PSYCHOLOGY　IN　YOUR　LIFE　

functionalists　was　“What　is　the　function　or　purpose　of　a　behavior？”　

3。　John　Dewey；　an　American　philosopher；　founded　the　school　of　functionalism；　
which　led　to　many　advances　in　education。　
4。　The　Legacy　of　Structuralism　and　Functionalism：　Both　live　on。　Today　
psychologists　employ　a　variety　of　methods　to　study　both　the　structure　and　the　
function　of　mental　life　and　behavior。　
E。　Current　Psychological　Perspectives　
1。　Contemporary　psychology　is　dominated　by　seven　perspectives　or　conceptual　
approaches：　Biological；　Psychodynamic；　Behavioristic；　Humanistic；　Cognitive；　
Evolutionary；　and　Cultural。　Each　of　these　approaches　espouses　points　of　view　
and　sets　of　assumptions　that　influence　both　what　will　be　studied　and　how　it　
will　be　investigated。　Most　psychologists　blend　and　borrow　from　several　of　
these　perspectives。　At　the　end　of　the　description　of　each　perspectives　is　an　
analysis　of　that　approach　to　understanding　the　causes　of　aggression。　
2。　Biological　Perspective：　The　biological　perspective　attempts　to　explain　behavior　
in　terms　of　the　influence　of　genes；　the　brain；　the　nervous　system；　and　the　
endocrine　system　by　examining　underlying　physical　structures　and　processes　
a）　From　the　biological　perspective；　even　the　most　plex　behavior　can　
be　understood　by　deposing　the　behavior　into　smaller　units；　such　
as　the　firing　of　neurons　in　the　brain　

b）　A　unifying　theme　for　biological　researchers　is　that；　although　the　
environment　and　experience　can　modify　behavior　by　altering　
underlying　biological　structures　and　processes；　behavior　originates　
from　biological　forces　

c）　How　biological　psychologists　study　aggression：　By　examining　the　
genetic　and　biochemical　bases　of　aggressive　behavior　in　both　normal　
individuals　and　abnormal　individuals　prone　to　aggression　

3。　Psychodynamic　Perspective：　The　psychodynamic　perspective　holds　that　
behavior　is　determined　by　powerful　inner　forces；　such　as　instincts　and　
biological　drives；　and　by　attempts　to　resolve　conflicts　between　personal　needs　
and　society’s　demands。　The　purpose　of　behavior；　according　to　this　view；　is　to　
reduce　tension。　
a）　Psychodynamic　principles　of　motivation　originated　with　Sigmund　
Freud；　a　Viennese　physician；　and　his　work　with　mentally　disturbed　
patients。　Freud’s　ideas　have　had　a　greater　influence　on　more　areas　of　
psychology　than　any　other　person　has。　

b）　Freud　emphasized　the　primacy　of　early　childhood　in　mental　
development；　but　more　recent　psychodynamic　psychologists　have　
broadened　Freud’s　theory　to　include　social　influences　and　interactions　
that　occur　over　the　individual’s　lifetime　

c）　How　psychodynamic　psychologists　study　aggression：　By　examining　
the　unconscious　drives　and　conflicts　that　are　expressed　in　aggressive　
behavior　and　attempting　to　understand　how　aggression　reduces　
psychological　tension　

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4。　Behaviorist　Perspective：　Behaviorists　seek　to　understand　how　environmental　
contingencies　and　stimuli　control　behavior　in　terms　of　three　essential　aspects：　
Antecedent；　behavioral　response；　and　consequence　
a）　Antecedent　environmental　conditions　refer　to　the　state　of　the　
environment　before　a　behavior　is　performed　

b）　Behavioral　response；　the　main　object　of　study；　refers　to　the　action　to　be　
understood；　predicted；　and　controlled　

c）　Consequence　refers　to　what　results　from　the　behavioral　response　

d）　Behaviorists　are　interested　in　observable　behavior　and　often　use　
nonhuman　animals　so　that　they　can　control　the　conditions　of　
experimentation　more　pletely　than　they　can　with　human　
participants　

e）　Behaviorists　argue　that　principles　derived　from　research　with　
nonhuman　animals　apply　to　humans　as　well　

f）　Behaviorist　principles　have　yielded　more　humane　approaches　to　the　
education　of　children　and　to　the　treatment　of　behavior　disorders　

g）　How　behaviorists　study　aggression：　By　examining　the　stimulus　
causes　and　consequences　of　aggressive　behavior。　Specifically；　they　ask　
how　the　behavior　has　been　reinforced　in　the　past。　

5。　Humanistic　Perspective：　Humanistic　psychology；　a　more　optimistic　
alternative　to　the　psychodynamic　and　behaviorist　models；　suggests　that　
humans　are　innately　good　and　that　the　main　task　of　humans　is　to　strive　for　
growth　and　development　of　their　potential。　
a）　Humanists　are　phenomenologists　in　that　they　study　the　individual　
actor’s　personal　view　of　events；　focusing　on　the　subjective　world　
experienced　by　the　person；　not　an　objective　reality　

b）　Unlike　behaviorism；　humanistic　psychology　examines　the　human　as　a　
whole　（holistic　approach）　and　does　not　attempt　to　reduce　mental　life　to　
elemental　parts　

c）　How　humanists　study　aggression：　By　examining　maladaptive　values；　
social　conditions；　and　goals　that　hinder　growth　and　self…actualization　

6。　Cognitive　Perspective：　In　contrast　to　behaviorism；　which　focused　primarily　on　
observable　behavior；　cognitive　psychologists　are　most　interested　in　human　
thought　and　all　the　processes　of　knowing；　such　as　attending；　thinking；　
remembering；　and　understanding　
a）　Cognitive　psychologists　view　behavior　as　partly　determined　by　past　
experiences　but　also　influenced　by　an　individual’s　inner　world　of　
thought　and　imagination　about　the　ways　that　the　world　could　be。　To　
cognitive　psychologists；　an　individual’s　subjective　reality　is　more　
important　than　the　objective　reality　that　behaviorists　strive　to　capture。　

b）　Cognitive　psychologists　often　use　the　puter　as　a　metaphor　for　the　
human　mind　and　study　higher　mental　processes　such　as　perception；　
memory；　language　use；　problem　solving；　and　decision　making　

c）　How　cognitive　psychologists　study　aggression：　By　examining　
thoughts　associated　with　aggressive　behavior　and　the　influence　of　

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CHAPTER　1：　THE　SCIENCE　OF　PSYCHOLOGY　IN　YOUR　LIFE　

viewing　violence　on　television　and　video　on　attitudes　toward　

aggression　

7。　Evolutionary　Perspective：　The　evolutionary　perspective　extends　the