心理学与生活-第14章

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。　How　would　they　explain　their　behavior？　
What　rules　do　they　believe　they　used　to　match　up　the　couples？　Were　they　most　concerned　about　
age？　About　occupations？　About　leisure　activities？　Did　they　use　some　bination　of　all　three　
descriptions？　What　inferences　did　they　make　in　their　decisions；　such　as　perceived　gender？　What　
does　the　factor（s）　that　they　used　most　say　about　them　personally　and　their　selection　of　a　partner？　

。　How　might　their　explanation　allow　them　to　predict　which　real…world　relationships　would　succeed？　
Suppose　that　based　on　their　day…to…day　observations　of　relationships；　they　focused　on　occupations　

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CHAPTER　1：　THE　SCIENCE　OF　PSYCHOLOGY　IN　YOUR　LIFE　

while　doing　their　matchmaking。　Are　they　willing　to　generalize　from　the　predictions　they　made　on　
this　task　to　predictions　in　the　real　world？　Can　they　begin　to　imagine　the　types　of　research　they　
might　carry　out　to　test　those　predictions？　

。　Does　their　explanation　allow　them　to　control　or　improve　their　own　relationship…seeking　behavior　or　
to　give　better　advice　to　others？　
Have　they　learned　from　this　exercise　what　matters　most　to　them　in　a　relationship？　What　more　
would　they　like　to　learn　from　research？　

。　Could　they　learn　something　that　would　allow　them　to　improve　the　quality　of　their　own　or　other　
people’s　lives？　
If　their　research　reveals　the　factors　that　help　determine　which　relationships；　in　general；　will　endure；　
they　should　be　able　to　improve　the　quality　of　people’s　lives。　

BIOGRAPHICAL　PROFILES　

Wilhelm　Wundt　（1832–1920）　

Born　in　Neckarau；　Germany；　Wilhelm　Wundt　was　the　fourth　child　of　a　Lutheran　minister。　Despite　ing　
from　a　family　that　boasted　numerous　scholars；　scientists；　and　physicians；　Wundt　initially　was　not　a　good　
student。　After　he　dropped　out　of　one　high　school；　a　teacher　suggested　that　a　reasonable　goal　for　Wundt　
would　be　a　career　in　the　postal　service。　Wundt’s　scholastic　abilities　improved；　however；　and　in　1855　he　
graduated　at　the　top　of　his　class　in　medical　school。　Wundt　then　went　to　Berlin　to　study　physiology　with　
Johannes　Müller；　and　he　subsequently　decided　to　bee　an　experimental　physiologist　himself。　Wundt　
then　returned　to　the　University　of　Heidelberg；　where　he　worked　as　an　assistant　for　Herman　von　Helmholtz。　
It　was　at　Heidelberg　that　Wundt　taught　his　first　course　in　psychology。　The　year　was　1862。　

In　1879；　at　the　University　of　Leipzig；　where　he　held　a　chair　in　philosophy；　Wundt　established　the　Institute　
for　Experimental　Psychology；　the　first　laboratory　whose　formal　purpose　was　the　scientific　investigation　of　
the　human　mind。　Wundt　is　one　of　the　most　prolific　contributors　to　the　field　of　psychology　ever。　It　is　
estimated　that　between　the　years　of　1853　and　1920；　Wundt　wrote　53；735　pages　of　text。　Wundt　was　not　only　a　
voracious　writer；　he　was　also　responsible　for　training　numerous　researchers；　some　of　whom；　such　as　
Edward　Titchener；　brought　versions　of　Wundt’s　psychology　to　America。　

Sigmund　Freud　（1856–1939）　

Sigmund　Freud　was　born　in　Pribor；　Czechoslovakia；　in　1856。　Although　Freud　was　a　gifted　student；　it　took　
him　eight　years　to　finish　his　medical　degree　at　the　University　of　Vienna；　partly　because　he　was　interested　in　
so　many　topics。　Freud　first　pursued　a　career　as　a　neurologist；　but　financial　concerns　forced　him　into　general　
medical　practice。　In　cooperation　with　his　friend　Joseph　Breuer；　Freud　began　to　treat　hysterical　women。　This　
is　unusual；　because　at　the　time　there　was　no　known　cure　for　hysteria；　which　is　now　known　as　a　conversion　
disorder。　Through　trial　and　error　and　feedback　from　his　clients；　Breuer　and　Freud　developed　the　technique　
known　as　psychoanalysis。　Its　fundamental　rule　is　honesty；　clients　must　relay　all　thoughts　and　feelings　
uncensored　to　the　analyst。　Clients　then　follow　their　stream　of　thought　wherever　it　may　lead；　a　process　
known　as　free　association。　In　the　course　of　free　association；　clients　often　uncover　traumatic　events　in　the　
past；　and；　upon　reliving　these　events；　often　experience　relief　from　their　symptoms。　Freud’s　first　major　work；　

The　Interpretation　of　Dreams　（1900）　detailed　the　process　of　dream　interpretation；　which　he　felt　was　the　“royal　
road　to　the　unconscious。”　Although　it　took　six　years　to　sell　the　first　600　copies　printed；　this　work　was　
reprinted　eight　time　during　Freud’s　lifetime。　

Although　the　technique　of　psychoanalysis　is　perhaps　Freud’s　most　important　legacy；　he　made　many　other　

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substantial　contributions　to　psychology。　These　include　the　recognition　of　the　importance　of　sexuality　and　
unconscious　processes；　a　fully　developed　system　of　personality；　and　an　appreciation　for　the　conflict　
between　individual　desires　and　the　constraints　of　society。　His　work　has　influenced　so　many　aspects　of　our　
thinking　that　he　is　often　not　given　full　credit　for　the　development　of　his　ideas。　Freud’s　many　detractors　are　
quick　to　point　out　that　his　theories　are　not　based　on　empirical　research。　While　this　is　true；　just　because　they　
lack　empirical　evidence　does　not　mean　that　they　are　wrong；　only　that　they　are　less　likely　to　be　right。　Because　
of　the　breadth　of　his　intellectual　contributions；　he　remains　the　most　cited　psychologist　in　Psychology　and　

Life；　16th　Edition；　and　most　parable　texts。　

William　James　（1842–1910）　

William　James；　often　considered　the　father　of　American　psychology；　was　born　in　New　York　City；　but　spent　
much　of　his　childhood　traveling　between　the　United　States　and　Europe；　where　he　attended　several　private　
schools。　James’　interest　in　such　varied　fields　as　philosophy；　religion；　and　science　were　cultivated　at　home　in　
an　enriched　environment　shared　with　his　brother　Henry　James；　the　famous　author。　William　James　struggled　
to　find　a　vocation　that　mated　his　various　interests；　trying　his　hand　at　art　（his　paintings　have　appeared　on　

the　cover　of　recent　editions　of　the　American　Psychologist）；　chemistry；　and；　finally；　medicine。　He　received　his　

M。D。　from　Harvard　in　1868。　
In　1872；　James　began　teaching　physiology　at　Harvard；　but　was　preoccupied　by　his　ongoing　and　deep　

interest　in　such　philosophical　issues　as　free　will　and　determinism。　Though　James　considered　himself　a　
temporary　dabbler　in　the　discipline　of　psychology；　his　two…volume　textbook；　Principles　of　Psychology　（1890）；　
stood　as　the　field’s　definitive　textbook　through　the　first　half　of　this　century。　It　is　still　considered　one　of　the　
best…written　texts　on　psychology　and　a　source　of　many　original　ideas。　James’　contributions　to　psychology　
include　the　notion　of　a　stream　of　consciousness；　the　importance　of　habit　and　instinct；　a　plex　theory　of　
the　self；　theory　of　emotion；　and　opening　the　boundaries　of　psychology　to　include　topics　such　as　religious　
beliefs。　

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TIMELINE　

Yea　Event　
r　
1781　Immanuel　Kant　published　Critique　of　Pure　Reason。　
1811　Charles　Bell　and　Francois　Magendie　discovered　that　there　are　two　types　of　nerves：　sensory　and　
motor　nerves。　
1827　Ludwig　von　Beethoven　died。　
1838　Johannes　Müller　articulated　his　“Doctrine　of　Specific　Nerve　Energies。”　
1846　Ernst　Weber　derived　the　quantitative　relationships　between　subjective　experience　and　physical　
stimulation；　known　as　Weber’s　Law。　
1848　Marx　and　Engels　published　the　munist　Manifesto。　
1859　Charles　Darwin　published　On　the　Origin　of　Species　by　Natural　Selection；　a　culmination　of　his　
research　and　thinking　about　evolution　via　natural　selection。　
1860　Gustav　Fechner　published　Elements　of　Psychophysics；　which　outlined　the　experimental　study　of　the　
relationship　between　subjective　experience　and　physical　stimulation。　
1861　Paul　Broca　discovered　that　damage　to　a　specific　area　of　the　left　hemisphere　of　the　brain　impairs　
language　abilities。　
18611865　
The　American　Civil　War　was　fought。　
1872　Claude　Monet　painted　Impression—Sunrise；　Le　Havre；　the　painting　that　lent　its　name　to　the　
Impressionist　movement。　
1879　Wilhelm　Wundt　established　the　first　psychology　laboratory　at　the　University　of　Leipzig；　Germany。　
1883　The　first　psychology　laboratory　in　the　United　States　was　established　at　Johns　Hopkins　University　
by　G。　Stanley　Hall。　
1885　Hermann　Ebbinghaus　published　his　empirical　research　on　memory。　
1890　William　James　published　the　Principles　of　Psychology；　a　two…volume　text　that　became　the　standard　
reference　for　psychology　students。　
1892　The　American　Psychological　Association　was　founded　by　G。　Stanley　Hall；　who　subsequently　
became　its　first　president。　
1896　Thomas　Edison　invented　the　motion　picture。　
1898　Edward　Thorndike　conducted　the　first　systematic　experiments　on　animal　learning。　
1905　Alfred　Binèt　and　Theodore　Simon　developed　the　first　useful　intelligence　test。　
1906　Charles　Sherrington　published　Integrative　Actions　of　the　Nervous　System；　which　set　forth　the　basic　
principles　and　terminology　used　today；　to　describe　the　structure　and　function　of　the　nervous　
system。　
1913　John　Watson　published　“Psychology　as　the　Behaviorist　Views　It；”　sometimes　referred　to　as　the　
Behaviorist　Manifesto；　an　influential　paper　asserting　that　psychology　should　restrict　its　subject　

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matter　to　observable　behavior。　
19141918　
World　War　I　was　fought。　
1917　Wolfgang　K。hler　published　The　Mentality　of　Apes；　a　report　of　his　research　on　the　problem…solving　
abilities　of　non…human　primates。　
1928　Ivan　Pavlov　published　Lectures　on　Conditioned　Reflexes；　a　survey　of　his　research　on　classical　
conditioning。　
1938　B。　F。　Skinner　published　Behavior　of　Organism。　An　Experimental　Analysis；　which　outlined　the　basic　
principles　of　operant　conditioning。　
19391945　
World　War　II　was　fought。　
1946　The　American　Psychological　Association　was　reorganized　to　include　practitioner　psychologists　as　
well　as　research　psychologists。　
1950　William　Estes　published　“Toward　a　Statistical　Theory　of　Learning；”　a　classic　paper　outlining　a　
mathematical　approach　to　learning。　
1957　Noam　Chomsky　published　Syntactic　Structures；　inaugurating　an　era　of　productive　collaboration　
between　psychologists　and　linguists。　Psycholinguistics　soon　became　a　flourishing　field　of　
psychology。　
1957　Herbert　Simon　published　Administrative　Behavior：　A　Study　of　Decision…Making　Processes　in　
Administrative　Organizations；　detailing　the　dynamics　of　decision…making　under　conditions　of　
uncertainty。　
1962　David　Hubel　and　Thorston　Weisel　published　their　research　on　how　specific　features　of　visual　
stimuli　excite　specific　neurons　in　the　visual　cortex。　
1963　John　F。　Kennedy　was　assassinated　in　Dallas。　
1981　Roger　Sperry　received　the　Nobel　Prize　for　his　pioneering　work　on　the　split…brain　phenomenon。　

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CHAPTER　1：　THE　SCIENCE　OF　PSYCHOLOGY　IN　YOUR　LIFE　

SUGGESTIONS　FOR　FURTHER　READINGS　

American　Psychologist；　47　（2）；　Special　Edition：　The　History　of　American　Psychology。　American　Psychological　
Association；　February　1992。　This　entire　volume　is　dedicated　to　the　history　of　the　discipline；　with　articles　
on　James；　Wundt；　Lewin；　Skinner；　and　the　establishment　of　the　discipline　in　the　United　States。　

Bordens；　K。　S。；　&　Abbott；　B。　B。　（1988）。　Research　Design　and　Methods：　A　Process　Approach。　Mountain　View；　CA：　
Mayfield。　Applies　the　research　process　to　both