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throughout¡¡the¡¡day£»¡¡while¡¡20¡¡others¡¡received¡¡normal¡¡hospital¡¡treatment¡¡in¡¡the¡¡intensive¡¡care¡¡unit£»¡¡treatment¡¡
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development¡£¡¡This¡¡research¡¡is¡¡being¡¡extended¡¡and¡¡replicated¡¡in¡¡larger¡¡samples¡¡of¡¡preemies¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡
establish¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡human¡¡touch¡¡on¡¡biological¡¡and¡¡psychological¡¡health¡£¡¡
In¡¡the¡¡United¡¡States£»¡¡more¡¡than¡¡0¡£25¡¡million¡¡infants¡¡are¡¡born¡¡prematurely¡¡each¡¡year¡£¡¡Those¡¡who¡¡are¡¡touched¡¡
and¡¡cuddled¡¡leave¡¡the¡¡hospital¡¡several¡¡days¡¡sooner¡¡than¡¡usual£»¡¡reducing¡¡care¡¡costs¡¡by¡¡about¡¡3£»000¡¡per¡¡
child¡£¡¡Unfortunately£»¡¡not¡¡all¡¡hospitals¡¡apply¡¡what¡¡scientists¡¡have¡¡learned¡¡about¡¡the¡¡positive¡¡effects¡¡of¡¡early¡¡
touch¡¡on¡¡development¡£¡¡If¡¡they¡¡did£»¡¡the¡¡lives¡¡of¡¡thousands¡¡of¡¡children¡¡would¡¡be¡¡improved£»¡¡saving¡¡billions¡¡of¡¡
dollars¡¡each¡¡year¡ªboth¡¡practical¡¡benefits¡¡of¡¡this¡¡basic¡¡research¡£¡¡
When¡¡Nicole¡¡and¡¡Alexis¡¡left¡¡the¡¡hospital£»¡¡they¡¡were¡¡still¡¡small£»¡¡but¡¡were¡¡developing¡¡so¡¡well¡¡that¡¡doctors¡¡felt¡¡
confident¡¡they¡¡would¡¡be¡¡all¡¡right¡£¡¡At¡¡home£»¡¡the¡¡babies¡¡shared¡¡a¡¡crib¡¡in¡¡the¡¡living¡¡room£»¡¡where¡¡relatives¡¡and¡¡
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development¡¡of¡¡the¡¡brain¡¡and¡¡the¡¡mental¡¡and¡¡psychical¡¡processes¡¡that¡¡it¡¡controls¡£¡¡
51¡¡
CHAPTER¡¡4¡¡
Sensation¡¡
LEARNING¡¡OBJECTIVES¡¡
On¡¡pletion¡¡of¡¡this¡¡chapter£»¡¡students¡¡should¡¡be¡¡able¡¡to£º¡¡
1¡£¡¡Understand¡¡the¡¡basic¡¡processes¡¡through¡¡which¡¡sensory¡¡stimuli¡¡are¡¡converted¡¡into¡¡neural¡¡
events¡¡
2¡£¡¡Describe¡¡M¨¹ller¡¯s¡¡doctrine¡¡of¡¡specific¡¡nerve¡¡energies¡¡
3¡£¡¡Relate¡¡the¡¡differences¡¡in¡¡thresholds¡¡£¨absolute¡¡and¡¡difference£©¡¡and¡¡know¡¡why¡¡these¡¡concepts¡¡
are¡¡relevant¡¡
4¡£¡¡Discuss¡¡the¡¡concepts¡¡of¡¡response¡¡bias¡¡and¡¡signal¡¡detection¡¡theory¡¡
5¡£¡¡Identify¡¡the¡¡parts¡¡and¡¡functions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡human¡¡visual¡¡system¡¡
6¡£¡¡Understand¡¡the¡¡basic¡¡processes¡¡involved¡¡in¡¡color¡¡vision£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡theories¡¡supporting¡¡those¡¡
processes¡¡
7¡£¡¡Describe¡¡the¡¡physiological¡¡ponents¡¡of¡¡the¡¡auditory¡¡system¡¡
8¡£¡¡Explain¡¡the¡¡two¡¡theories¡¡of¡¡pitch¡¡perception¡¡
9¡£¡¡Define¡¡pheromones¡¡and¡¡describe¡¡their¡¡role¡¡in¡¡olfaction¡¡
CHAPTER¡¡OUTLINE¡¡
I¡£¡¡Sensory¡¡Knowledge¡¡of¡¡the¡¡World¡¡
A¡£¡¡Sensation¡¡is¡¡the¡¡process¡¡by¡¡which¡¡stimulation¡¡of¡¡sensory¡¡receptors¡¡produces¡¡neural¡¡
impulses¡¡that¡¡represent¡¡experiences¡¡inside¡¡or¡¡outside¡¡the¡¡body¡¡
B¡£¡¡This¡¡chapter¡¡deals¡¡with¡¡sensory¡¡processes£»¡¡with¡¡the¡¡sense¡¡organs¡¡and¡¡peripheral¡¡aspects¡¡of¡¡
the¡¡nervous¡¡system¡¡that¡¡put¡¡you¡¡in¡¡contact¡¡with¡¡the¡¡world¡¡around¡¡you¡¡
C¡£¡¡Your¡¡senses¡¡have¡¡two¡¡basic¡¡functions¡¡
1¡£¡¡Survival¡¡
2¡£¡¡Sensuality¡¡
D¡£¡¡While¡¡some¡¡animals¡¡specialize¡¡in¡¡one¡¡sensory¡¡medium£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡the¡¡sight¡¡of¡¡hawks£»¡¡humans¡¡
are¡¡equipped¡¡with¡¡a¡¡variety¡¡of¡¡sensory¡¡mechanisms¡¡
E¡£¡¡Psychophysics¡¡
1¡£¡¡The¡¡study¡¡of¡¡the¡¡relationship¡¡between¡¡physical¡¡stimuli¡¡and¡¡the¡¡
behavior¡¡or¡¡mental¡¡experiences¡¡the¡¡stimuli¡¡evoke¡£¡¡The¡¡oldest¡¡field¡¡in¡¡
psychology¡£¡¡
2¡£¡¡Gustav¡¡Fechner¡¡£¨1801¨C1887£©¡¡
a£©¡¡The¡¡most¡¡significant¡¡figure¡¡in¡¡psychophysics¡¡
52¡¡
CHAPTER¡¡4£º¡¡SENSATION¡¡
b£©¡¡Coined¡¡the¡¡term¡¡¡°psychophysics¡±¡¡and¡¡developed¡¡procedures¡¡to¡¡
relate¡¡the¡¡intensity¡¡of¡¡physical¡¡stimulus¡¡to¡¡the¡¡magnitude¡¡of¡¡the¡¡
sensory¡¡experience¡£¡¡
3¡£¡¡Absolute¡¡Thresholds¡¡and¡¡Sensory¡¡Adaptation¡¡
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stimulus¡¡energy¡¡that¡¡the¡¡organism¡¡can¡¡detect¡¡
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input¡¡is¡¡detected¡¡half¡¡of¡¡the¡¡time¡¡
c£©¡¡Sensory¡¡Adaptation¡¡is¡¡the¡¡diminishing¡¡responsiveness¡¡of¡¡sensory¡¡
systems¡¡to¡¡prolonged¡¡stimulus¡¡input¡£¡¡Sensory¡¡systems¡¡are¡¡more¡¡
sensitive¡¡to¡¡change¡¡in¡¡stimulus¡¡input¡¡than¡¡to¡¡steady¡¡input¡£¡¡
4¡£¡¡Response¡¡Bias¡¡
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particular¡¡way¡¡that¡¡is¡¡unrelated¡¡to¡¡the¡¡qualities¡¡of¡¡the¡¡sensory¡¡
stimulus¡£¡¡For¡¡instance£»¡¡tending¡¡to¡¡say¡¡¡°yes¡±¡¡or¡¡¡°no¡±¡¡all¡¡of¡¡the¡¡time¡£¡¡
There¡¡are¡¡at¡¡least¡¡three¡¡sources¡¡of¡¡response¡¡bias¡£¡¡
i£©¡¡Desire¡¡
ii£©¡¡Expectation¡¡
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5¡£¡¡Signal¡¡Detection¡¡Theory¡¡
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b£©¡¡Focuses¡¡on¡¡the¡¡process¡¡of¡¡making¡¡a¡¡judgment¡¡about¡¡the¡¡presence¡¡
or¡¡absence¡¡of¡¡a¡¡stimulus¡¡
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absolute¡¡threshold£»¡¡Signal¡¡Detection¡¡Theory¡¡identifies¡¡two¡¡distinct¡¡
processes¡¡in¡¡sensory¡¡detection£º¡¡Sensory¡¡Processes¡¡and¡¡Decision¡¡
Processes¡¡
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stimulus¡¡
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the¡¡stimulus¡¡
6¡£¡¡Difference¡¡Thresholds¡¡
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difference¡¡between¡¡two¡¡stimuli¡¡that¡¡can¡¡still¡¡be¡¡recognized¡¡as¡¡a¡¡
difference¡¡
b£©¡¡Operationally¡¡defined¡¡as¡¡the¡¡point¡¡at¡¡which¡¡the¡¡stimuli¡¡are¡¡
recognized¡¡as¡¡different¡¡half¡¡of¡¡the¡¡time¡¡
c£©¡¡The¡¡difference¡¡threshold¡¡value¡¡is¡¡known¡¡as¡¡the¡¡Just¡¡Noticeable¡¡
Difference¡¡£¨JND£©¡¡
7¡£¡¡Weber¡¯s¡¡Law¡¡
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the¡¡standard¡¡stimulus¡¡
53¡¡
PSYCHOLOGY¡¡AND¡¡LIFE¡¡
F¡£¡¡From¡¡Physical¡¡Events¡¡to¡¡Mental¡¡Events¡¡
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II¡£¡¡The¡¡Visual¡¡System¡¡
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CHAPTER¡¡4£º¡¡SENSATION¡¡
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cones¡¡that¡¡convert¡¡light¡¡energy¡¡into¡¡nerve¡¡energy¡¡
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a¡¡shift¡¡in¡¡illumination¡¡from¡¡light¡¡to¡¡near¡¡darkness¡¡
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center¡¡of¡¡the¡¡retina¡¡that¡¡contains¡¡only¡¡densely¡¡packed¡¡cones¡¡
4¡£¡¡Bipolar¡¡cells¡¡are¡¡nerve¡¡cells¡¡that¡¡bine¡¡information¡¡from¡¡many¡¡receptor¡¡
cells¡¡and¡¡send¡¡the¡¡results¡¡to¡¡ganglion¡¡cells¡¡
5¡£¡¡Ganglion¡¡cells¡¡then¡¡integrate¡¡the¡¡information¡¡from¡¡bipolar¡¡cells¡¡into¡¡a¡¡
single¡¡firing¡¡rate¡¡
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visual¡¡information¡¡to¡¡the¡¡brain¡¡
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rather¡¡integrate¡¡information¡¡across¡¡the¡¡retina¡¡
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spot¡¡because¡¡the¡¡blind¡¡spots¡¡for¡¡each¡¡eye¡¡are¡¡different¡¡areas¡¡of¡¡the¡¡visual¡¡
field¡¡and¡¡because¡¡the¡¡brain¡¡automatically¡¡fills¡¡in¡¡the¡¡blind¡¡spot¡£¡¡
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visual¡¡information¡¡is¡¡the¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡occipital¡¡lobe¡¡known¡¡as¡¡the¡¡visual¡¡
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color¡¡wheel¡¡are¡¡called¡¡plementary£»¡¡and¡¡create¡¡the¡¡sensation¡¡of¡¡white¡¡
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8¡£¡¡There¡¡are¡¡two¡¡primary¡¡theories¡¡of¡¡color¡¡vision£º¡¡The¡¡Young¡Helmholtz¡¡
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