心理学与生活-第26章
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intense at the ear farthest away from the sound than at the ear closest to the sound。 It is only for
high frequencies that there is information about how far to one side or another a sound is located。
The other major source of information about the horizontal direction of a sound is the time at which
it arrives at your two ears。 When a sound es from directly in front of your head; the arrival times
are the same because your two ears are the same distance away from the sound。 However; when the
sound es from the side; the sound wave must travel farther to reach the ear on the far side。 Even
though this extra distance takes only a little extra time—less than one…thousandth of a second—it is
enough to tell us which side sound is ing from。
The direction of sounds from left to right; or right to left; is probably the most important part of
spatial hearing; but it is not the only part。 You can also tell whether a sound is ing from above
or below—the sound of a jet streaking overhead or of an object dropped at your feet。 You are not
able to perceive vertical direction from simple arrival times or intensities; however。 It is the shape of
the external ear that allows you to perceive the vertical dimension of space。 Notice that your ear is
asymmetrical。 There are many plex; sound…reflecting folds in the pinna above the ear canal; and
few below it。 These differences in the shape of the external ear make subtle changes in the sound
wave that enters your ears; depending on the vertical direction of the sound source。 Somewhere in
the auditory centers of the brain; these differences are detected and decoded; allowing you to
perceive upward and downward directions of environmental sounds。
We are left with the problem of perceiving the third dimension of depth—how far away the source
of a sound is from us。 A sound that is near is louder than one that is far away; so you might think
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that intensity would provide all the information you need about the distance (or depth) of the
source of a sound。 Unfortunately; it is not that easy。 A low…intensity sound at the ear might have
e from either a loud sound far away or a soft one nearby。 This situation is analogous to the
relations among retinal size; object distance; and object size in visual perception。 If the sound is one
whose usual intensity you know; such as someone speaking in a normal voice or the sound of an
average car engine; you can perceive its approximate distance by sound using intensity
information。 If the sound is one whose usual intensity you do not know; you cannot tell how far
away it is by hearing it; you have to look。 Because you can locate the direction that the sound is
ing from using your ears; you can use them to point your eyes in the correct direction; which
can then do the job of judging distance。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894)
Hermann Von Helmholtz obtained his M。D。 in Berlin and served subsequently as an Army surgeon
for seven years。 Following his military service; he studied math and physics and held academic
appointments over the next 30 years at Bonn; Heidelberg; and Berlin; initially as a physiologist;
later as a physicist。 Helmholtz; whose versatility and intellectual brilliance manifested itself in
various disciplines; is considered one of the true giants in the history of science。
Helmholtz’s prominence in physiology came chiefly from his discovery of the rate of neural
conduction; a finding that surprised many of his contemporaries who had assumed that nerve
impulses must travel at or near the speed of light。 In addition; he invented the opthalmoscope while
researching vision; and was involved in the development of theories of color vision and pitch
perception that remain influential today。 His published works include the three…volume series
Physiological Optics (1856—1866)。
Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795—1879)
Ernst Weber taught anatomy and physiology at the University of Leipzig; Germany; from 1820 until
the end of his career。 He is remembered in psychology for his studies of psychophysical relations;
especially for the sensations of temperature and touch。 Weber was the first to investigate the two…
point threshold for touch; observing that sensitivity to touch varied across different parts of the
body and demonstrating that regions of the body are differentially sensitive to tactile stimulation。
Weber’s analysis of difference thresholds led to the finding that the size of the difference threshold
remains a constant fraction of the stimulus intensity; an orderly relationship referred to as Weber’s
Law。
Ronald Melzack (b。 1929)
Ronald Melzack was raised and educated in Montreal; Canada; obtaining his Ph。D。 from McGill
University in 1958。 He conducted research in pain sensation at the University of Oregon Medical
School from 1954 to 1957。 Following this; he was a visiting lecturer at University College; London;
and spent a year conducting physiological research in Italy at the University of Pisa。 He was
appointed to the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1959; but returned to
McGill University in 1963。
Melzack’s doctoral research on pain in experimental animals resulted in his collaboration with
Patrick Wall。 Out of this effort emerged the gate…control theory of pain; which remains today the
most widely accepted theory of pain sensation and regulation。 Its implications have influenced not
only basic research on pain but also the clinical practice of pain management。 Melzack continues to
refine and modify this successful theory。
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CHAPTER 4: SENSATION
TIMELINE
Year Event
1838 Johannes Müller formulated his doctrine of specific nerve energies; which states that
sensory experience depends not on the stimulus; but on the part of the nervous system
that is activated。
1839 M。 E。 Chevreul published On the Law of simultaneous Contrast of Colors。
1843 S。ren Kierkegaard published Either/Or。
1846 Ernst Weber postulated that the difference threshold is a constant proportion of the initial
stimulus intensity; a notion later formalized as Weber’s Law。
1855 Walt Whitman published Leaves of Grass。
1857 Based on the earlier work of Thomas Young; Hermann von Helmholtz proposed that color
vision is due to three different types of color receptors (cones); each of which is sensitive to
a specific range of wavelengths of light。
1860 Gustav Fechner published Elemente der Psychophysik; marking the founding of
psychophysics; the study of the relationship between subjective experience and physical
stimulation。
1898 The Spanish…American War was fought。
1929 The Great Depression began with the stock market crash。
1938 H。 Keffer Hartline discovered that optic nerve fibers respond to stimulation from different
receptive fields。
19501953
The Korean War was fought。
1954 Tanner and Swets proposed the application of signal detection theory to the study of
thresholds。
1954 The first hydrogen bomb was exploded。
1957 S。 S。 Stevens demonstrated that changes in one’s subjective impression of stimulus
magnitude are a power function of the actual stimulus magnitude。
1957 Leo Hurvich and Dorothea Jameson; building on the work of Ewald Hering; postulated
the theory that color vision is based on opposing neural processes; the opponent…process
theory of color vision。
1959 David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel discovered that cells in the visual cortex of cats (and; in
1968; of monkeys) respond differentially to form and movement。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS
Kosslyn; S。 M。 (1995)。 Visual Cognition: An Invitation To Cognitive Science; Vol。 2 (2nd ed。)。 Cambridge:
MIT Press。 Explores the mental aspects of visual processing。 Discusses the important research;
discoveries; and insights in various areas of research on visual cognition and attempts to
integrate work from related fields。
Kosslyn; S。; & Koenig; O。 (1992)。 Wet Mind: The New Cognitive Neuroscience。 New York: Free Press。 A
prehensive; integrated; and accessible overview of recent insights into how the brain gives
rise to mental activity。 Examines a large number of syndromes that occur following brain
damage; and accounts for them according to an analysis of the operation of a normal brain。 The
authors also present an interesting theory of consciousness。
Link; S。 (1994)。 Rediscovering the Past: Gustav Fechner and Signal Detection Theory。 Psychological
Science; 5(6); 335…340。 Suggests that the origins of experimental psychology are found in the
theoretical works of Gustav Fechner and that Fechner is not given the credit that he is due for
his contributions。 Argues that his works spawned many new ideas and theories; including the
response bias found in signal detection theory。
Matlin; M。 W。; & Foley; H。 J。 (1992)。 Sensation and Perception。 (3rd edition)。 Boston: Allyn and Bacon。
A well…written introduction to the fields of sensation and perception。
Sekuler; R。 (1995)。 Motion Perception as a Partnership: Exogenous and Endogenous Contributions。 Current
Directions in Psychological Science; 4(2); 43–47。 Describes the process of motion detection as a
result of the interaction of exogenous and endogenous influences。
DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 7: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Overview
Explores how we make contact with the world outside our brain and body。 See how biological;
cognitive; social; and environmental influences shape our personal sense of reality; and gain an
understanding of how psychologists use perceptual errors to study how the constructive process of
perception works。
Key Issues
Visual illusions; the biology of perception; the visual pathway; how the brain processes information
during perception; sensory feedback in visual perception; and perceptual constancy。
Demonstrations
Sensory feedback in visual perception。 A Stanford student demonstrates the problems that football
quarterbacks face in the adjustment to special kinesthetic cues with distortion goggles that displace
feedback from the perceived visual field。
Perceptual constancy。 Philip Zimbardo demonstrates visual misperception in the Ames distorted room
in the Exploratorium in San Francisco。
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CHAPTER 4: SENSATION
Interviews
Nobel Prize winner David Hubel (Harvard University) explains the mapping of the reaction of receptor
cells along the visual pathway of primates。 Hubel’s award…winning experiment of the response of
neurons to electrical activity in the visual cortex of a cat illustrates his point。
Misha Pavel uses puter graphics to demonstrate how the visual system of the brain breaks down
and rebines visual stimulation into recognizable; coherent images。
FILMS AND VIDEOS
A Touch of Sensitivity (1981)。 BBC; 50 minutes
This NOVA presentation discusses the importance of touch and the effects of touch deprivation。
This film examines the importance of touch for development at various ages。 Many interesting areas
of research are cited。
The Mind: Pain and Healing (1988)