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interaction of cognitive therapy with physical therapy has increased her life expectancy and her life 
quality。 

The Senses: Eyes and Ears (1985)。 FFHS; 26 minutes 

Visual and auditory distance receptors are discussed。 Demonstrations of how each processes 
information are also shown。 

The Senses: Skin Deep (1985)。 FFHS; 26 minutes 

The sense receptors that depend on immediate contact with the world—taste buds; olfactory cells; 
and touch sensors—are examined。 

CASE STUDY LECTURE LAUNCHER 

One night in 1965; a United Airlines Boeing 727 started a steady descent to Chicago’s O’Hare 
Airport from an altitude of 22;000 feet。 Nineteen miles off the shore of Lake Michigan; the plane 
plunged into the lake。 One month later; also at night; an American Airlines Boeing 727; preparing 
to land at Kentucky’s Boone County Airport; followed the thread of the Ohio River toward the 
runway which began at the river’s steep south bank。 The plane failed to make the runway; and 
crashed into the bank; 12 feet below the runway。 One night in early 1966; an Al Nippon Airlines 
Boeing 727 headed toward Tokyo Bay。 The pilot could see the lights of Tokyo and Yokohama 
clearly。 He requested and received permission to approach using visual cues rather than relying 
exclusively on the instruments of the plane。 The pilot had not even let down the wheels or extended 
the flaps when; six and a half miles from the runway; the plane dove into Tokyo Bay at 240 knots。 

Preliminary analyses of these and other similar cases showed that all of the accidents occurred at 
night; under clear weather conditions; with the planes flying over a dark area of water or land。 In 
every case; irregular patterns of light (as opposed to grids of neatly intersecting lines of streetlights) 
in the distance had been visible to the pilots。 

In a way; the new Boeing 727 design was partly responsible for the accidents; because it was so 
well engineered。 In earlier; less stable models; feedback from vibrations; sounds and kinesthetic 
sensations would have warned pilots that they were descending too rapidly。 However; it was more 
than an improved design that had caused the accidents。 

Using a flight simulator; engineering psychologist Conrad Kraft found that an error in the pilot’s 
visual perception was responsible for each of the accidents。 Pilots making a visually guided 
approach over a dark terrain relied on the relatively constant visual angle between their planes and 

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CHAPTER 5: PERCEPTION 

the distant light patterns in determining their altitudes。 If they were approaching flat terrain; their 
altitude estimates were generally correct; but if the terrain sloped upward; with the farthest lights 
higher than the closer ones; even the most experienced pilots descended to dangerously low 
altitudes。 With no visual information from the “black hole” below them; the pilots overestimated 
their distance from the ground and inappropriately adjusted their descent angles。 

Why didn’t the pilots also use their altimeters; which indicated altitude accurately? When landing 
an airplane; a pilot must monitor several functions at once–such as air speed; engine settings; 
altitude; glide slope; angle of attack; and heading–while also responding to air traffic controller 
directions and watching for other aircraft。 With all of these responsibilities; especially when 
visibility is good; pilots may fail to check their altimeters and instead rely on visual cues from the 
cockpit。 After Dr。 Kraft solved the mystery of the accidents; mercial airlines around the world 
informed pilots of the conditions under which they might misjudge altitude on approach to 
landing。 Psychologists such as Dr。 Kraft study perception in order to learn how the major sensory 
systems of the body help (and sometimes trick) us in gathering information about the environments 
in which we live; work; and play。 

85 


CHAPTER 6 
Mind; Consciousness; and Alternate States 

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to: 

1。 Identify and provide examples of the three levels of consciousness 
2。 Describe the origins of the mind—body problem; and Descartes’ mechanistic approach to it 
via his theory of the animal machine 
Explain the philosophical and theoretical differences between dualism and monism 

4。 Define the concepts of the personal construction of reality; the cultural construction of 
reality; and the significance of consensual validation of both 
5。 Define and give examples of circadian rhythms 
6。 Identify the five stages of sleep; as well as the functions of REM sleep 
7。 Explain the four major types of sleep disorders 
8。 Describe both the basic premises of Freudian dream analysis and the activation synthesis 
hypothesis of dreaming 
9。 Explain extended states of consciousness; such as hypnosis; meditation; and hallucination 
10。 Describe the effects of psychoactive substances 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 The Contents of Consciousness 
A。 This chapter discusses ordinary states of consciousness and the mind–body problem; as 
well as the more unusual experiences that are part of the human potential; such as 
hallucinations; hypnosis; and dreams 
B。 Awareness and Consciousness 
C。 Consciousness is an ambiguous term that can refer to a general state of mind or to its 
specific contents 
1。 The contents of consciousness refers to the information at the 
intersection of these two types of consciousness 
D。 Consciousness has long been a topic of psychological inquiry。 In the late 1800s; Wundt and 
Titchener used introspection to explore the contents of the conscious mind and James made 
observations of his own “stream of consciousness。” 
E。 Ordinary waking consciousness includes perceptions; thoughts; feelings; images; and 
desires at a given moment; but consciousness can be formally defined as consisting of three 
levels: 
1。 Basic level consciousness is an awareness of the inner and outer world– 
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CHAPTER 6: MIND; CONSCIOUSNESS; AND ALTERED STATES 

awareness that one is perceiving and reacting to perceptual 
information 

2。 Second level consciousness is the reflection on that of which one is aware 
and includes the manipulation of symbolic knowledge free from the 
constraints of real objects and present events 
3。 Top level consciousness is self…awareness–awareness that one is 
conscious and capable of reflection 
F。 Accessibility to Consciousness 
1。 Non…conscious processes are bodily activities that rarely impinge on 
consciousness; such as digestion; regulation of blood pressure; and 
breathing 
2。 Preconscious memories are memories that bee accessible to 
consciousness only after something has called attention to them 
3。 Unattended information refers to environmental stimuli that are not the 
focus of attention; but that may be processed unconsciously。 If these 
stimuli bee relevant; such as when you hear your name at a 
cocktail party; it may bee the subject of consciousness。 
4。 The Unconscious; most fully elaborated by Freud; refers to mental 
processes that are not and cannot be conscious。 Freud believed that 
the unconscious was filled with forbidden; traumatic thoughts; while 
contemporary researchers examine the more benign aspects of the 
unconscious。 
G。 Studying the Contents of Consciousness 
1。 Two primary methods are used to study consciousness: 
a) Think…aloud protocols ask individual to report their thoughts 
aloud as they perform an experimental task 

b) Experience…sampling methods ask individuals to report their 
thoughts and feelings when signaled to do so; often by 
electronic pagers 

II。The Functions of Consciousness 
A。 The Uses of Consciousness 
1。 To understand the functions of consciousness; the forces that control 
behavior must be understood 
2。 Early human ancestors believed in animistic explanations of behavior; 
that spiritual forces guided all forms of life 
3。 Contemporary researchers have replaced the role of spirits with the 
concepts of consciousness and mind 
B。 Aiding Survival 
1。 Consciousness probably evolved because it helped individuals make 
sense of and navigate in the environment。 Consciousness aids 
adaptation to the environment in three ways: 
87 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

a) Consciousness performs a restrictive function and tunes out 
much information that is irrelevant to immediate goals 

b) Consciousness performs a selective storage function for those 
special stimuli that are to be analyzed; interpreted; and acted 
on 

c) Consciousness performs a planning or executive control 
function that enables the suppression of strong desires when 
they conflict with moral; ethical; or practical concerns 

C。 Personal and Cultural Constructions of Reality 
1。 A personal construction of reality is an individual’s unique 
interpretation of a current situation based on knowledge; memories; 
needs; values; beliefs; and goals 
a) When a personal construction of reality remains stable over 
time; a sense of self or consciousness of self has continuity 
over time 

2。 Cultural constructions of reality are ways of thinking about the world 
that are shared by most members of a particular group of people 
3。 Consensual validation is the mutual affirmation of conscious 
constructions of reality 
D。 Studying the Functions of Consciousness 
1。 Researchers use the SLIP (Spoonerisms of Laboratory Induced 
Predisposition) technique to study the way in which unconscious 
forces affect speech errors 

III。 Sleep and Dreams 
A。 Circadian rhythms–the human time cycle–influence arousal levels; metabolism; heart 
rate; body temperature; hormonal activity; and other bodily processes。 Circadian rhythms 
are close to 24 hours。 
1。 Mismatches between circadian rhythms and environmental clocks can 
affect how individuals feel; as it does in jet lag 
2。 About a third of each circadian rhythm is devoted to sleep 
B。 The Sleep Cycle 
1。 The electroencephalogram (EEG); which records electrical brain wave 
activity; provided a methodological breakthrough in sleep research。 
2。 As an individual prepares for bed; brain wave activity averages about 
14 cycles per second (cps) 
3。 Stage 1 sleep is characterized by brain waves of about 3 to 7 cps 
4。 Stage 2 sleep is characterized by sleep spindles; minute bursts of 
electrical activity of 12 to 16 cps 
5。 Stage 3 sleep is characterized by deep relaxation and brain wave 
activity of about 1 to 2 cps 
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CHAPTER 6: MIND; CONSCIOUSNESS; AND ALTERED STATES 

6。 Stage 4 sleep is characterized by even deeper relaxation and very slow 
brain wave activity 
7。 REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is characterized by a return to brain 
wave activity similar to that found in stages 1 and 2; by the rapid eye 
movements for which this stage is named; and by the presence of 
dreams 
8。 The first four stages of sleep require about 90 minutes。 REM sleep 
about 10 minutes。 During the course of a night; this 100…minute cycle 
is repeated four to six times。 
C。 Why Sleep? 
1。 The two most general functions of NREM sleep are conservation and 
restoration 
a) Sleep helps conserve energy because it often occurs whe

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