爱爱小说网 > 其他电子书 > 心理学与生活 >

第31章

心理学与生活-第31章

小说: 心理学与生活 字数: 每页3500字

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页,按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页,按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部!
————未阅读完?加入书签已便下次继续阅读!



restoration 
a) Sleep helps conserve energy because it often occurs when 
foraging for food; searching for mates; or moving about is 
unnecessary or dangerous 

b) Sleep serves a restorative function because neurotransmitters 
and neuromodulators may be synthesized and their balance 
restored during sleep 

2。 The function of REM sleep appears to be related to the maintenance of 
mood and emotion; storing memories; and fitting recent experiences 
into existing memories。 REM sleep may also restore the balance of the 
brain after NREM sleep。 
D。 Sleep Disorders 
1。 Insomnia is the inability to get a satisfactory amount or quality of sleep 
and is characterized by an inability to fall asleep; frequent arousal; or 
early morning awakening 
2。 Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder characterized by a periodic pulsion 
to sleep during the daytime 
3。 Sleep Apnea is an upper respiratory sleep disorder in which the person 
stops breathing while asleep; which causes the sufferer to awake 
immediately and begin breathing again 
4。 Excessive Daytime Sleepiness is the major plaint of individuals 
evaluated at sleep disorder centers。 About one…third of adults report 
excessive sleepiness during the daytime。 
E。 Dreams: Theater of the Mind 
1。 Most dreams take place during REM sleep。 Dreams that take place 
during NREM sleep tend to be full of specific thoughts but devoid of 
dramatic content or vivid sensory imagery。 
2。 NREM dreams are recalled less often than REM dreams; but NREM 
dreaming is enhanced during the very late morning hours。 
89 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

3。 Most cultures instill the belief that dreams have meaning; but they do 
so in diverse ways 
a) The most prominent Western theory of dreams was proposed 
by Sigmund Freud 

b) Freud believed dreams to be “the royal road to the 
unconscious” 

c) In The Interpretation of Dreams; Freud made dreams a 
cornerstone of psychoanalysis。 Dreams; to Freud; were “wish 
fulfillment” of powerful; unconscious desires that were 
disguised in dream form。 

d) The latent content of a dream referred to the hidden wish or 
meaning of the dream 

e) This latent content is transformed into a disguised form; or 
manifest content; through the process of dream work 

f) Dream work takes forbidden wishes and transforms them into 
often bizarre but acceptable forms that are experienced as 
dreams 

g) The interpretation of dreams requires working backward from 
the manifest content to the latent content; to revealing the 
unconscious wishes expressed in the dream 

h) Freud’s theory of dream interpretation relates dream symbols; 
which may have both universal and personal meanings; to 
his explicit theory of psychology 

4。 Non…Western Approaches to Dream Interpretation 
a) In many non…Western cultures; dream interpretation is part of 
the fabric of the culture 

b) In the Mayan culture; shamans function as dream interpreters 
and play a central role in Mayan interpersonal relations and 
in tying the Mayan culture to their ancestral roots 

c) In other cultures; such as the people of the Ingessana Hills 
(bordering Ethiopia and Sudan) and the Kapolo Indians of 
Brazil; dreams represent visions of the future 

F。 Physiological Theories of Dream Content 
1。 Represent the greatest challenge to the Freudian Theory of Dreams 
2。 The Activation–Synthesis Model of Dreams suggests that dreams are 
the brain’s attempt to make sense of essentially random neural firings 
that occur during sleep。 In an inexorable quest for meaning; the brain 
weaves random neural activity into a strange but prehensible 
narrative based on memories; beliefs; values; goals; and expectations。 
G。 Nightmares 
1。 Nightmares are dreams that make the dreamer feel helpless or out of 
control 
90 


CHAPTER 6: MIND; CONSCIOUSNESS; AND ALTERED STATES 

2。 Nightmares are often triggered by stress; especially fear of harm and 
desertion; and usually only occur a few times each year 
3。 Traumatic events may make individuals more likely to have 
nightmares that force them to relive some aspect of the traumatic event 
IV。 Alerted States of Consciousness 
A。 Lucid Dreaming 
1。 Lucid dreaming involves conscious awareness while an individual is 
dreaming; that they are dreaming 
2。 Research suggests that the ability to lucid dream can be taught 
3。 Some researchers; such as LaBerge; argue that lucid dreaming 
enhances self…esteem and generates positive experiences by giving 
individuals control over the often uncontrollable events of dreams and 
nightmares 
4。 Others argue that lucid dreaming interferes with and distorts the 
natural process of dreaming 
B。 Hypnosis 
1。 Hypnosis is an alternative state of awareness characterized by the 
special ability some people have of responding to suggestion with 
changes in perception; memory; motivation; and sense of self…control 
a) Some researchers believe that hypnotized individuals enter a 
trance; although research suggests that this is not the case 

b) Some believe that hypnosis is a kind of placebo response; 
although some research suggests an added benefit beyond 
that derived from a placebo 

2。 Hypnotic Induction and Hypnotizability 
a) A hypnotic induction is a preliminary set of activities that 
minimizes external distractions and encourages the 
participant to enter a hypnotic state 

b) Hypnotizability refers to the degree to which an individual is 
responsive to standardized suggestions to experience 
hypnotic reactions 

c) Hypnotizability varies widely from person to person; is 
relatively stable over time; and may have some genetic 
determinants; although it is not correlated with any 
personality trait 

3。 Effects of Hypnosis 
a) One undisputed value of hypnosis is pain reduction (hypnotic 
analgesia)。 Hypnotic analgesia has proved especially 
valuable to surgery patients that are allergic to anesthesia; to 
mothers in natural childbirth; and to cancer patients learning 
to endure chronic pain associated with their disease。 

b) Self…hypnosis is the best approach to controlling pain because 

91 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

individuals can essentially self…medicate whenever pain 

arises 

c) Research on hypnotic pain reduction suggests that hypnosis 
segregates consciousness into two levels。 One level is a full; 

but hypnotic; consciousness。 The second level is a Hidden 
Observer; a concealed nonconscious awareness that monitors 
the hypnotized consciousness。 

d) People cannot be made to do anything that they do not wish 
to do under hypnosis 

C。 Meditation 
1。 Meditation is a form of consciousness change designed to enhance self…
knowledge and well…being by reducing self…awareness 
a) Critics argue that there is little difference between a normal 
resting state with the eyes closed and the state entered 
through meditation 

b) Advocates argue that meditation reduces stress; can improve 
IQ; and can even lead to enlightenment 

D。 Hallucinations 
1。 Hallucinations are false perceptions that occur in the absence of 
objective stimulation and can be caused by the following: 
a) Heightened arousal 

b) States of intense need 

c) Inability to suppress threatening thoughts 

d) Abnormal brain functioning caused by fevers; seizures; and 
migraine headaches 

e) Psychoactive drugs; such as LSD and peyote; can also 
produce hallucinations by acting directly on the brain 

2。 In some cultural and religious settings; hallucinations play an 
important mystical or spiritual role 
E。 Religious Ecstasy 
1。 Religious ecstasy is a unique psychological state characterized by a 
sense of oneness and connectedness often brought on by meditation; 
prayer; fasting; and spiritual munication 
2。 During religious ecstasy; some individuals can do remarkable things 
that they ordinarily may not be able to do; such as handling deadly 
snakes; drinking poison; and handling fire 
F。 Mind…Altering Drugs 
1。 Although mind…altering drugs have been used for centuries during 
religious ceremonies; today they are associated more often with 
92 


CHAPTER 6: MIND; CONSCIOUSNESS; AND ALTERED STATES 

recreational usage 

2。 Dependence and Addition 
a) Psychoactive drugs are chemicals that affect mental processes; 
such as perception; memory; mood; and behavior by 
temporarily changing conscious awareness 

b) Tolerance may be developed to psychoactive drugs in which 
more and more of the drug is needed to produce the same 
change in consciousness 

c) Physiological dependence is a process in which the body 
bees accustomed to the presence of a drug and begins to 
depend on its presence to function properly 

3。 Varieties of Psychoactive Drugs 
a) Hallucinogenic or psychedelic drugs; including LSD; mescaline; 
psilocybin; and PCP; can produce profound alterations of both 
perception and inner awareness。 They often lead to a loss of 
boundary between self and non…self and to confusion。 

b) Cannabis; including both marijuana and hashish; can create 
mild; pleasurable highs; distortions of space and time; 
euphoria; and; occasionally; hallucination。 Possible negative 
effects include fear; anxiety; paranoia; confusion; and 
retardation of motor function。 

c) Opiates; such as heroin and morphine; suppress physical 
sensation and stimulation and produce a rush of euphoria。 
Because of this rush; any use is likely to lead to serious 
addiction。 

d) Depressants; such as barbiturates and alcohol; tend to depress 
the mental and physical activity of the body by inhibiting the 
transmission of nerve impulses in the central nervous system 

(i) Barbiturates; such as Valium and Xanax; are 
particularly dangerous; accounting for half of drug 
overdoses 
(ii) Although often socially accepted; alcohol is a major 
health and social problem。 Alcohol use can lead to 
alcoholism; which can disrupt social and 
professional relations; and to serious health 
problems。 
e) Stimulants; such as amphetamines; cocaine; and crack (a purified 
form of cocaine); induce a sense of euphoria; self…confidence; 
and hyperalertness。 Possible negative effects include 
paranoid delusions; cycles of euphoric highs and painful 
lows; and social isolation。 

93 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

(i) Caffeine and nicotine are often unrecognized 
stimulants that act on the brain much like other 
stimulants。 Nicotine is a dangerous drug that has a 
greater impact on health than that of all other 
psychoactive drugs bined。 
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

1。 The class should now be familiar with dualism and monism; through both the text and 
lectures。 Ask them which of these they think best describes the relationship between the 
brain and the mind。 Why? Can anyone think of personal experiences or observations to 
support their beliefs? What about empirical data that might support a given hypothesis? 
2。 Zimbardo and Gerrig propose that sleep may have evolved because it gave animals an 
opportunity to conserve energy at those times when they did not need to be searching for 
food or a mate。 Given that we as humans no longer engage in these activities under the 
same constraints as animals; ask the class if they think it possible

返回目录 上一页 下一页 回到顶部 0 0

你可能喜欢的