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心理学与生活-第36章

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be defined; and differential reinforcement schedules must be used to 
refine behavior。 
2。 Chaining is a technique used to teach sequences of actions。 In 
chaining; the last response of the sequence is reinforced first。 
3。 Each link in the behavior chain serves as a discriminative stimulus for 
the next response line and as a conditioned reinforcer for the response 
that immediately precedes it 
IV。 Biology and Learning 
A。 Biological constraints on learning are limitations on learning imposed by a species’ genetic 
endowment 
B。 Instinctual Drift is the process by which learned behavior drifts toward instinctual 
behavior。 Instinctual Drift is understandable considering the species…specific tendencies 
imposed by an inherited genotype。 
C。 Taste…Aversion Learning is a powerful type of teaming that is learned through only one 
pairing of a CS (the flavor) and its consequences (the illness)。 Although the flavor did not 
cause the illness; the flavor is associated with the UCS; perhaps a virus; which did cause 
the illness。 
1。 Once taste…aversion learning has occurred; the organism will never 
consume the flavor again 
2。 The time between the presentation of the CS and when the organism 
bees ill can be very long; 12 hours or more 
3。 Certain types of animals are biologically predisposed to learn certain 
associations 
4。 Taste…aversion learning has practical aspects。 For example; coyotes 
can be taught through taste…aversion learning to despise sheep meat。 
Vgnitive Influences on Learning 
A。 Cognition is any mental activity involved in the representation and processing of 
knowledge; such as thinking; remembering; perceiving; and talking 
B。 Animal Cognition 
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CHAPTER 7: LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 

1。 Researchers have demonstrated that it is not only classical and 
operant conditioning that generalizes across species。 Cognition; to 
some extent; does as well。 
2。 Cognitive maps are internal representations of the physical 
characteristics of the external environment。 For rats; cognitive maps 
may indicate where food is located in a maze。 Spatial cognitive maps 
can be used to: 
a) Recognize and identify features in the environment 

b) Find important goal objects in the environment 

c) Plan an efficient route through the environment 

3。 Conceptual Behavior; the cognitive ability to make conceptual 
distinctions and to generalize about new concepts and categories; is 
found is some animals as well as in humans 
C。 Observational Learning 
1。 Observational; or social; learning refers to learning done vicariously。 In 
observational learning; an organism simply watches another perform 
a behavior; notes the consequences; and modifies its own behavior 
accordingly。 
a) Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment play a 
large role in observational learning 

b) Observational learning is not unique to humans 

c) Research has well documented children’s tendency to imitate 
adult models 

d) A model’s observed behavior is most influential when: 

(i) The behavior is seen as having reinforcing consequences 
(ii) The model is liked; respected; and perceived positively 
(iii) There are perceived similarities between the model and 
the observer 
(iv) The observer is rewarded for paying attention to the 
model’s behavior 
(v) The model’s behavior is visible and salient 
(vi) It is within the observer’s range of petence to imitate 
the behavior 
e) Because of the violent nature of many television shows; 
individuals may learn antisocial behavior simply by 
observing it on television。 Research suggests that there are 
two major effects of filmed violence。 

(i) Psychic numbing involves a reduction in both emotional 
arousal and in distress at viewing violence 
(ii) An increase in the likelihood of engaging in aggressive 
behavior 
f) Pro…social; as well as antisocial lessons; can be learned from 

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television viewing。 

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CHAPTER 7: LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

1。 Discuss how radical behaviorism; as proposed by Skinner; might be used to explain 
cognitive development; because cognition is not an observable process and behaviorists 
only studied observable processes。 
2。 What if a child’s behavior was followed by random events; instead of predictable 
consequences? What behavioral outes might we expect to see with children in such a 
situation? 
3。 Given that “little Albert” was removed from Watson’s experiment before his having been 
desensitized; how might his conditioned fear manifest itself in “big Albert”? 
4。 Discuss with the class instances in which secondary gains can provide reinforcement for 
behaviors that may be irrational and self…defeating。 
5。 Discuss examples of the principle of observational learning in the animal kingdom。 
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL 

A Summary of Some Interesting Aspects of Classical 
Conditioning 

1。 Any stimulus we can perceive has the potential to bee a conditioned stimulus。 
2。 Perception of the CS can take place below the level of conscious awareness。 
3。 Any response we make naturally can e to be elicited by a learned signal。 
4。 These responses can be highly specific and simple (such as a muscle twitch or part of a 
brain wave pattern) or general and plex (such as sexual arousal or fear)。 
5。 The conditioned response can be a response of our skeletal muscles or visceral organs or 
even a “private” response (such as thoughts and feelings)。 
6。 With a powerful original UCS; conditioning may take place in only one trial in which the 
UCS is paired with a CS。 
7。 Stimuli quite different from the original CS can control the appearance of the conditioned 
response through higher…order conditioning。 
8。 Depending on the strength of the CR and the nature of the conditioning process; some 
learned responses resist extinction and may endure for a lifetime。 
Taken together; these principles reveal the remarkable adaptability of organisms to learned 
conditioned associations; but they also are somewhat disturbing。 It is obvious that inappropriate 
conditioning that is not in our best interest also takes place。 Examples of such inappropriate 
conditioning include the learning of persistent irrational behaviors; superstitions; and conditioned 
addictions。 

The Effects of Corporal Punishment 

The use of punishment in the control of human behavior is not merely a matter of deciding whether 
it works; aside from the psychological questions involved in punishing people for “undesirable 
behavior;” there are moral and legal issues to be considered。 Corporal punishment is defined in 
educational terms as the inflicting of pain by a teacher or school official on the body of a student as 

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a penalty for doing something that is disapproved of by the punisher。 This includes confinement in 
an unfortable space; forced eating of noxious substances; and standing for long periods。 The 
four most mon justifications for using corporal punishment are the following: 

1。 It is a proven and effective method for changing undesirable behavior 
2。 It develops a sense of personal responsibility 
3。 It teaches self…discipline 
4。 It instills moral character 
Punishment; however; does not acplish any of these goals。 Target behaviors are suppressed 
only when the punishment is severe and repeated; and only then in the presence of the person that 
delivers the punishment。 Further; the “side effects” of aversive control include such issues as the 
development of a generally negative attitude toward school or learning; avoidance of the teacher; 
truancy; blind obedience to authority; vandalism; and learning to use violence against younger or 
weaker students。 

In addition; punishment may be counterproductive。 In a study of the spontaneous use of 
punishment by teachers; two children from each of five classes were observed for a four…month 
period。 These children had a high frequency of classroom behavior for which their teachers 
reprimanded them loudly in the presence of the class。 The reprimands were not effective in 
reducing the frequency of the disruptive behavior。 During phase 2 of the study; teachers were asked 
to switch to “soft” reprimands; audible only to the child being reprimanded。 In almost all cases; 
disruptive behavior decreased when soft reprimands were used。 

In phase 3 of the above study; when loud reprimands were reinstated; there was an increase in 
frequency of disruptive behavior。 In phase 4; to demonstrate convincingly the counter productivity 
of loud; public reprimands and the effectiveness of soft ones; soft personal ones were again used by 
the teachers。 Disruptive behavior declined in virtually all cases where the teacher used a soft; 
personal reprimand intended only for the ears of the relevant student; rather than a public 
pronouncement to the student’s peers (O’Leary; Kaufman; Kass; & Drabran; 1970)。 

There are many alternatives to the use of physical punishment in the classroom。 “Time…out rooms” 
and denial of class privileges can be effective aversive control tactics。 Private conferences with 
“disruptive” students can also be used effectively。 Class discussion of acceptable and unacceptable 
behaviors and shared responsibility for discipline help create a democratic class atmosphere。 In 
addition; more interesting curricula and better preparation for teachers in managing children with 
the use of positive incentives and reinforcements can be used to reduce the need for punishment。 

Operant Conditioning the Easy Way 

Many students have difficulty in understanding the difference between punishment and 
reinforcement; as defined by operant conditioning。 Students often believe that the term “negative” 
must be unpleasant; whether concerning negative reinforcement or negative punishment。 

To understand operant conditioning; students must first understand the “Law of Effect”; which 
states that those behaviors followed by a positive oute are more likely to be repeated and that 
behaviors followed by a negative oute are less likely to be repeated。 Specifically; the Law states 
that the consequences of a behavior change the likelihood of engaging in that behavior in the future。 
This idea emphasizes the pragmatic adaptability of behavior。 

1。 Positive Reinforcement; cell (1); means giving or presenting of something favorable; 
something that the organism perceives as pleasant。 This stimulus can be food; water; 
access to sexual partners; etc。 
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CHAPTER 7: LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 

2。 Negative Punishment; cell (2); refers to weakening of a response by the omission; or removal 
of a favorable stimulus; such as removal of something the organism perceives as favorable; 
in order to decrease probability of response。 This can be removing food if the organism does 
not give the desired response when stimulated。 This does not do anything to the organism 
directly; it just takes away something it happens to like。 Students can think of this as 
passive punishment; if that makes the concept clearer。 
3。 Positive Punishment; cell (3); is the opposite of positive reinforcem

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