心理学与生活-第36章

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be　defined；　and　differential　reinforcement　schedules　must　be　used　to　
refine　behavior。　
2。　Chaining　is　a　technique　used　to　teach　sequences　of　actions。　In　
chaining；　the　last　response　of　the　sequence　is　reinforced　first。　
3。　Each　link　in　the　behavior　chain　serves　as　a　discriminative　stimulus　for　
the　next　response　line　and　as　a　conditioned　reinforcer　for　the　response　
that　immediately　precedes　it　
IV。　Biology　and　Learning　
A。　Biological　constraints　on　learning　are　limitations　on　learning　imposed　by　a　species’　genetic　
endowment　
B。　Instinctual　Drift　is　the　process　by　which　learned　behavior　drifts　toward　instinctual　
behavior。　Instinctual　Drift　is　understandable　considering　the　species…specific　tendencies　
imposed　by　an　inherited　genotype。　
C。　Taste…Aversion　Learning　is　a　powerful　type　of　teaming　that　is　learned　through　only　one　
pairing　of　a　CS　（the　flavor）　and　its　consequences　（the　illness）。　Although　the　flavor　did　not　
cause　the　illness；　the　flavor　is　associated　with　the　UCS；　perhaps　a　virus；　which　did　cause　
the　illness。　
1。　Once　taste…aversion　learning　has　occurred；　the　organism　will　never　
consume　the　flavor　again　
2。　The　time　between　the　presentation　of　the　CS　and　when　the　organism　
bees　ill　can　be　very　long；　12　hours　or　more　
3。　Certain　types　of　animals　are　biologically　predisposed　to　learn　certain　
associations　
4。　Taste…aversion　learning　has　practical　aspects。　For　example；　coyotes　
can　be　taught　through　taste…aversion　learning　to　despise　sheep　meat。　
Vgnitive　Influences　on　Learning　
A。　Cognition　is　any　mental　activity　involved　in　the　representation　and　processing　of　
knowledge；　such　as　thinking；　remembering；　perceiving；　and　talking　
B。　Animal　Cognition　
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1。　Researchers　have　demonstrated　that　it　is　not　only　classical　and　
operant　conditioning　that　generalizes　across　species。　Cognition；　to　
some　extent；　does　as　well。　
2。　Cognitive　maps　are　internal　representations　of　the　physical　
characteristics　of　the　external　environment。　For　rats；　cognitive　maps　
may　indicate　where　food　is　located　in　a　maze。　Spatial　cognitive　maps　
can　be　used　to：　
a）　Recognize　and　identify　features　in　the　environment　

b）　Find　important　goal　objects　in　the　environment　

c）　Plan　an　efficient　route　through　the　environment　

3。　Conceptual　Behavior；　the　cognitive　ability　to　make　conceptual　
distinctions　and　to　generalize　about　new　concepts　and　categories；　is　
found　is　some　animals　as　well　as　in　humans　
C。　Observational　Learning　
1。　Observational；　or　social；　learning　refers　to　learning　done　vicariously。　In　
observational　learning；　an　organism　simply　watches　another　perform　
a　behavior；　notes　the　consequences；　and　modifies　its　own　behavior　
accordingly。　
a）　Vicarious　reinforcement　and　vicarious　punishment　play　a　
large　role　in　observational　learning　

b）　Observational　learning　is　not　unique　to　humans　

c）　Research　has　well　documented　children’s　tendency　to　imitate　
adult　models　

d）　A　model’s　observed　behavior　is　most　influential　when：　

（i）　The　behavior　is　seen　as　having　reinforcing　consequences　
（ii）　The　model　is　liked；　respected；　and　perceived　positively　
（iii）　There　are　perceived　similarities　between　the　model　and　
the　observer　
（iv）　The　observer　is　rewarded　for　paying　attention　to　the　
model’s　behavior　
（v）　The　model’s　behavior　is　visible　and　salient　
（vi）　It　is　within　the　observer’s　range　of　petence　to　imitate　
the　behavior　
e）　Because　of　the　violent　nature　of　many　television　shows；　
individuals　may　learn　antisocial　behavior　simply　by　
observing　it　on　television。　Research　suggests　that　there　are　
two　major　effects　of　filmed　violence。　

（i）　Psychic　numbing　involves　a　reduction　in　both　emotional　
arousal　and　in　distress　at　viewing　violence　
（ii）　An　increase　in　the　likelihood　of　engaging　in　aggressive　
behavior　
f）　Pro…social；　as　well　as　antisocial　lessons；　can　be　learned　from　

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television　viewing。　

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DISCUSSION　QUESTIONS　

1。　Discuss　how　radical　behaviorism；　as　proposed　by　Skinner；　might　be　used　to　explain　
cognitive　development；　because　cognition　is　not　an　observable　process　and　behaviorists　
only　studied　observable　processes。　
2。　What　if　a　child’s　behavior　was　followed　by　random　events；　instead　of　predictable　
consequences？　What　behavioral　outes　might　we　expect　to　see　with　children　in　such　a　
situation？　
3。　Given　that　“little　Albert”　was　removed　from　Watson’s　experiment　before　his　having　been　
desensitized；　how　might　his　conditioned　fear　manifest　itself　in　“big　Albert”？　
4。　Discuss　with　the　class　instances　in　which　secondary　gains　can　provide　reinforcement　for　
behaviors　that　may　be　irrational　and　self…defeating。　
5。　Discuss　examples　of　the　principle　of　observational　learning　in　the　animal　kingdom。　
SUPPLEMENTAL　LECTURE　MATERIAL　

A　Summary　of　Some　Interesting　Aspects　of　Classical　
Conditioning　

1。　Any　stimulus　we　can　perceive　has　the　potential　to　bee　a　conditioned　stimulus。　
2。　Perception　of　the　CS　can　take　place　below　the　level　of　conscious　awareness。　
3。　Any　response　we　make　naturally　can　e　to　be　elicited　by　a　learned　signal。　
4。　These　responses　can　be　highly　specific　and　simple　（such　as　a　muscle　twitch　or　part　of　a　
brain　wave　pattern）　or　general　and　plex　（such　as　sexual　arousal　or　fear）。　
5。　The　conditioned　response　can　be　a　response　of　our　skeletal　muscles　or　visceral　organs　or　
even　a　“private”　response　（such　as　thoughts　and　feelings）。　
6。　With　a　powerful　original　UCS；　conditioning　may　take　place　in　only　one　trial　in　which　the　
UCS　is　paired　with　a　CS。　
7。　Stimuli　quite　different　from　the　original　CS　can　control　the　appearance　of　the　conditioned　
response　through　higher…order　conditioning。　
8。　Depending　on　the　strength　of　the　CR　and　the　nature　of　the　conditioning　process；　some　
learned　responses　resist　extinction　and　may　endure　for　a　lifetime。　
Taken　together；　these　principles　reveal　the　remarkable　adaptability　of　organisms　to　learned　
conditioned　associations；　but　they　also　are　somewhat　disturbing。　It　is　obvious　that　inappropriate　
conditioning　that　is　not　in　our　best　interest　also　takes　place。　Examples　of　such　inappropriate　
conditioning　include　the　learning　of　persistent　irrational　behaviors；　superstitions；　and　conditioned　
addictions。　

The　Effects　of　Corporal　Punishment　

The　use　of　punishment　in　the　control　of　human　behavior　is　not　merely　a　matter　of　deciding　whether　
it　works；　aside　from　the　psychological　questions　involved　in　punishing　people　for　“undesirable　
behavior；”　there　are　moral　and　legal　issues　to　be　considered。　Corporal　punishment　is　defined　in　
educational　terms　as　the　inflicting　of　pain　by　a　teacher　or　school　official　on　the　body　of　a　student　as　

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a　penalty　for　doing　something　that　is　disapproved　of　by　the　punisher。　This　includes　confinement　in　
an　unfortable　space；　forced　eating　of　noxious　substances；　and　standing　for　long　periods。　The　
four　most　mon　justifications　for　using　corporal　punishment　are　the　following：　

1。　It　is　a　proven　and　effective　method　for　changing　undesirable　behavior　
2。　It　develops　a　sense　of　personal　responsibility　
3。　It　teaches　self…discipline　
4。　It　instills　moral　character　
Punishment；　however；　does　not　acplish　any　of　these　goals。　Target　behaviors　are　suppressed　
only　when　the　punishment　is　severe　and　repeated；　and　only　then　in　the　presence　of　the　person　that　
delivers　the　punishment。　Further；　the　“side　effects”　of　aversive　control　include　such　issues　as　the　
development　of　a　generally　negative　attitude　toward　school　or　learning；　avoidance　of　the　teacher；　
truancy；　blind　obedience　to　authority；　vandalism；　and　learning　to　use　violence　against　younger　or　
weaker　students。　

In　addition；　punishment　may　be　counterproductive。　In　a　study　of　the　spontaneous　use　of　
punishment　by　teachers；　two　children　from　each　of　five　classes　were　observed　for　a　four…month　
period。　These　children　had　a　high　frequency　of　classroom　behavior　for　which　their　teachers　
reprimanded　them　loudly　in　the　presence　of　the　class。　The　reprimands　were　not　effective　in　
reducing　the　frequency　of　the　disruptive　behavior。　During　phase　2　of　the　study；　teachers　were　asked　
to　switch　to　“soft”　reprimands；　audible　only　to　the　child　being　reprimanded。　In　almost　all　cases；　
disruptive　behavior　decreased　when　soft　reprimands　were　used。　

In　phase　3　of　the　above　study；　when　loud　reprimands　were　reinstated；　there　was　an　increase　in　
frequency　of　disruptive　behavior。　In　phase　4；　to　demonstrate　convincingly　the　counter　productivity　
of　loud；　public　reprimands　and　the　effectiveness　of　soft　ones；　soft　personal　ones　were　again　used　by　
the　teachers。　Disruptive　behavior　declined　in　virtually　all　cases　where　the　teacher　used　a　soft；　
personal　reprimand　intended　only　for　the　ears　of　the　relevant　student；　rather　than　a　public　
pronouncement　to　the　student’s　peers　（O’Leary；　Kaufman；　Kass；　&　Drabran；　1970）。　

There　are　many　alternatives　to　the　use　of　physical　punishment　in　the　classroom。　“Time…out　rooms”　
and　denial　of　class　privileges　can　be　effective　aversive　control　tactics。　Private　conferences　with　
“disruptive”　students　can　also　be　used　effectively。　Class　discussion　of　acceptable　and　unacceptable　
behaviors　and　shared　responsibility　for　discipline　help　create　a　democratic　class　atmosphere。　In　
addition；　more　interesting　curricula　and　better　preparation　for　teachers　in　managing　children　with　
the　use　of　positive　incentives　and　reinforcements　can　be　used　to　reduce　the　need　for　punishment。　

Operant　Conditioning　the　Easy　Way　

Many　students　have　difficulty　in　understanding　the　difference　between　punishment　and　
reinforcement；　as　defined　by　operant　conditioning。　Students　often　believe　that　the　term　“negative”　
must　be　unpleasant；　whether　concerning　negative　reinforcement　or　negative　punishment。　

To　understand　operant　conditioning；　students　must　first　understand　the　“Law　of　Effect”；　which　
states　that　those　behaviors　followed　by　a　positive　oute　are　more　likely　to　be　repeated　and　that　
behaviors　followed　by　a　negative　oute　are　less　likely　to　be　repeated。　Specifically；　the　Law　states　
that　the　consequences　of　a　behavior　change　the　likelihood　of　engaging　in　that　behavior　in　the　future。　
This　idea　emphasizes　the　pragmatic　adaptability　of　behavior。　

1。　Positive　Reinforcement；　cell　（1）；　means　giving　or　presenting　of　something　favorable；　
something　that　the　organism　perceives　as　pleasant。　This　stimulus　can　be　food；　water；　
access　to　sexual　partners；　etc。　
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2。　Negative　Punishment；　cell　（2）；　refers　to　weakening　of　a　response　by　the　omission；　or　removal　
of　a　favorable　stimulus；　such　as　removal　of　something　the　organism　perceives　as　favorable；　
in　order　to　decrease　probability　of　response。　This　can　be　removing　food　if　the　organism　does　
not　give　the　desired　response　when　stimulated。　This　does　not　do　anything　to　the　organism　
directly；　it　just　takes　away　something　it　happens　to　like。　Students　can　think　of　this　as　
passive　punishment；　if　that　makes　the　concept　clearer。　
3。　Positive　Punishment；　cell　（3）；　is　the　opposite　of　positive　reinforcem