心理学与生活-第4章

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master　the　material：　enthusiasm；　relevance；　organization；　appropriate　difficulty　level；　active　involvement；　
variety；　rapport；　and　use　of　appropriate　examples。　

Within　the　lecture；　use　examples—lots　of　examples—to　illustrate　the　many　unfamiliar　concepts　introduced　
in　the　course。　To　maintain　students’　attention；　vary　the　pitch　and　loudness　of　your　voice；　use　gestures　and　
facial　expression；　and　move。　Review　your　lecture　notes　thoroughly　before　class　so　you　will　not　be　glued　to　
the　lectern。　Periodically　review　your　delivery　method　and　voice　tone　by　listening　to　a　tape　recording　of　your　
lecture—an　invaluable　and　humbling　experience！　

Use　the　lecture　to　amplify　and　enrich　the　material　in　the　text；　to　illustrate　difficult　concepts；　to　relate　
psychology　to　personal　experience；　or　to　motivate　and　stimulate　students。　Avoid　duplicating　the　text。　Too　
much　factual　information　in　a　lecture　is　likely　to　overwhelm　students　and　result　in　little　or　no　retention。　

Lectures　should　usually　begin　with　an　attention…getting　device　such　as　a　quick　demonstration；　personal　
remark；　question；　anecdote；　or　a　clear　statement　of　a　theme；　problem；　or　paradox。　The　balance　of　the　lecture　
should　have　a　structure　that　is　apparent　to　the　students　as　well　as　to　you。　For　example；　begin　with　a　

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preview；　in　which　the　central　points　of　the　lecture　are　briefly　indicated　and　reference　is　made　to　important　
issues　or　types　of　evidence　related　to　each；　move　into　main　points；　each　of　which　is　stated　and　explored　by　
giving　relevant　evidence　and　explaining　current　controversies；　conclude　with　a　summary　in　which　the　
central　points　are　again　stated　and　supporting　information　briefly　reviewed。　In　effect；　as　a　friend　of　ours　is　
fond　of　saying；　“You　tell　’em　what　you’re　going　to　tell　’em；　you　tell　’em；　and　then　you　tell　’em　what　you　told　
’em。”　

START　WITH　AN　ATTENTION　GETTER　

As　a　guide　to　lively　lecture　starters；　we　offer　these　suggestions：　

。　Statement　of　thesis　to　be　argued：　“Today　I　would　like　to　try　to　convince　you　that　the　greatest　feat　of　
human　intelligence　occurs　when　a　two…year…old　child　learns　its　native　language。”　
。　Question：　“Research　in　the　area　of　attitude　change　shows　that　a　credible　municator　has　
more　persuasive　impact　than　a　noncredible　one。　Can　you　think　of　any　conditions　when　a　
disliked　municator　can　be　more　effective　than　a　liked　one　in　changing　your　attitudes？”　
。　Paradox：　“You　see　me　as　an　upright；　stationary　three…dimensional　figure；　yet　my　image　on　your　
retina　is　upside　down；　jiggling　around；　with　only　two　flat　dimensions。　How　do　you　see　the　real　
me；　given　your　deceiving　retina？”　
。　Personal　anecdote：　“Have　you　ever　known　someone　who　suddenly　and　without　any　warning　lost　
his　or　her　memory　＇became　a　different　person＇？　Several　years　ago　a　cousin　of　mine。　。　。”　
。　Argument：　“Freud　has　done　more　than　any　other　person　to　promote　the　psychological　study　and　
treatment　of　mental　illness　by　replacing　the　demons　of　exorcism　with　the　respectability　of　
medical　science　and　the　reasoned　analysis　of　psychoanalysis。　Nevertheless；　as　far　as　I　am　
concerned；　his　contribution　is　now　backfiring。　The　long…term　consequences　of　the　medical　
model　and　of　using　unconscious　dynamic　explanations　to　explain　a　basically　ordinary　process　
of　maladaptive　learning　are　nothing　less　than　fraud。”　
。　Relevant　media：　Start　your　lecture　by　reading　all　or　part　of　an　article　in　the　school　or　local　
newspaper　that　highlights　a　major　point　to　be　made　in　the　lecture。　
。　Relevant　student　material：　“A　student　from　my　other　class　came　to　ask　me　yesterday　whether　I　
might　refer　him　to　a　psychiatrist。　After　a　long　discussion；　it　seemed　evident　that　his　problem　
was　loneliness；　and　I　do　not　know　a　therapist　who　treats　that。　How　unusual　and　bizarre　a　
problem　is　loneliness？　Are　any　of　you　afflicted　by　it？　Let　us　discuss　that　topic　today。”　
。　Concrete　instances　（people　rather　than　abstract　variables）：　“It’s　hard　to　imagine　that　we　would　ever　
be　blindly　obedient　to　authority　as　participants　in　Milgram’s　experiments　were。　‘Not　me；　I’m　
different；’　you　say。　‘I’d　be　independent。’　What　do　you　think　the　people　in　Nixon’s　presidential　
cabinet　said　before　the　Watergate　scandal？　Moreover；　what　about　the　900　people　who　took　part　
in　the　mass　suicide　pact　in　Guyana？　Were　they　being　loyal　to　their　leader；　the　Reverend　Jim　
Jones？　Dedicated　to　their　cause？　Faithful　to　their　religious　beliefs？　Alternatively；　were　they　
blindly　obedient　fanatics　who　were　brainwashed　by　a　dictator？　Who　is　absolutely　certain　they　
would　not　have　drunk　the　poison　at　Jonestown　if　they　had　been　members　of　the　People’s　
Temple？”　
。　Shared　experiences：　“We　all　know　people　who。　。　。”　or　“I’m　sure　that　you；　like　me；　have　been　in　
love　and　maybe　we　have　even　experienced　similar　emotions　when　that　union　was　at　its　height　
and　＇pause＇　when　the　relationship　somehow　went　wrong；　failed；　died。　Let’s　examine　the　nature　
of　emotions　。　。　。”　
。　Challenge：　“My　daughter　asked　me　if　blind　people　ever　dream　in　colors。　Who　has　an　answer　I　
can　give　her？”　
。　Turn　of　phrase：　“What’s　the　difference　between　a　psychologist　who　studies　animal　learning　and　
a　magician　who　uses　animals　in　his　act？　The　psychologist　pulls　habits　out　of　his　rats。”　
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。　Individualize　prior　student　input：　“You　recall　that　in　our　last　lecture　a　student　challenged　the　
view　that　pain　is　a　sensation　parable　to　other　senses。　Ms。　Jones’　pain…as…unique　sensation　
theory；　in　fact；　fits　some　new　evidence。”　
WITHIN　THE　LECTURE　

The　material　within　the　lecture　should　follow　a　logical　order。　Among　the　organizational　schemes　you　can　
use　are：　

CAUSE　AND　EFFECT　

Cite　and　explain　events　by　referring　to　their　origins。　For　example；　you　can　discuss　how　the　criticisms　of　
existing　theories　led　to　the　development　of　new　perspectives。　

TIME　SEQUENTIAL　

Arrange　lecture　ideas　chronologically。　For　example；　you　can　explain　how　information　moves　from　one　
memory　system　to　another　through　a　series　of　steps。　Information　is　encoded　into　sensory　memory；　the　
important　information　moves　on　to　short…term　memory　（where　it　is　rehearsed　or　lost）；　and　so　on。　

TOPICAL　

Focus　on　parallel　elements　of　different　discussion　topics。　For　example；　when　teaching　the　major　
psychological　disorders；　you　can　discuss　their　similarities。　

PROBLEM—SOLUTION　

Follow　the　statement　of　a　problem　with　alternative　solutions。　For　example；　you　might　pose　the　problem：　
What　are　the　consequences　of　frustration？　You　could　then　go　on　to　discuss　the　responses；　such　as；　
frustration　may　lead　to　aggression。　

PRO—CON　

Present　a　two…sided　discussion　of　a　value…laden　topic。　When　using　this　method；　be　certain　to　give　each　side　
equal　weight。　Let　the　students　decide　for　themselves　which　side　they　want　to　take。　For　example；　the　topic　of　
deinstitutionalization　has　an　inherent　adversarial　challenge。　On　the　one　hand；　research　shows　that　many　
institutionalized　patients　can　exist　and　improve　in　a　“least　restrictive　environment。”　Letting　them　out　of　
institutions；　moreover；　is　economically　beneficial　to　the　various　state　and　local　governments　and　thus　to　the　
taxpayer。　On　the　other　hand；　if　the　patients　are　deinstitutionalized　in　munities　lacking　sufficient　
services；　the　former　patients　will　be　forced　out　onto　the　streets　to　fend　for　themselves。　Such　a　situation　can　be　
dangerous　both　to　them　and　to　the　munities　in　which　they　reside。　

ASCENDING—DESCENDING　

Arrange　lecture　topics　according　to　their　importance；　familiarity；　or　plexity。　For　example；　arrange　the　
major　psychological　disorders　from　most　debilitating　to　least　debilitating；　or　from　hardest　to　easiest　to　
diagnose。　

TO　KEEP　THEIR　ATTENTION　FROM　WANDERING　

During　the　standard　50…minute　hour；　your　students’　attention　will　frequently　wander　in　response　to　
external　distractions　（attractive　fellow　students；　campus　newspapers；　outside　noises）　and　internal　
distractions　（hunger；　fatigue　from　late…night　parties　or　athletic　practice；　distress　over　an　exam　failed　during　

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the　preceding　class　period；　sexual　daydreams　whose　fantasy　is　much　more　stimulating　than　any　lecture）。　
This　fierce　petition　means　that　at　any　given　time　many　students　are　unaware　of　the　important　things　
you　have　said。　（Try　collecting　a　sample　of　your　students’　notes　from　time　to　time　to　see　how　much　of　your　
output　was　never　received　or　was　grossly　distorted。）　

Audience　distractions　may　be　minimized　in　several　ways：　

。　Timing：　Hold　your　main　points　to　about　5　minutes　each　（never　more　than　10　minutes）　and　
insert　a　bit　of　humor；　an　anecdote；　or　an　opportunity　for　a　few　questions　into　the　transition　
period　preceding　the　next　main　point。　An　outline　on　the　board　or　a　mimeographed　outline　is　
beneficial　in　keeping　the　students–and　yourself–on　track。　
。　Variety：　Use　catchy　stylistic　devices　（stories；　clever　brief　demonstrations）　and　change　your　
expressive　style　（volume；　pacing；　pregnant　pauses）　to　add　variety　to　the　rather　narrow　band　of　
stimuli　involved　in　straight　talk。　Although　you　have　written　out　your　lecture；　do　not　read　it！　
。　Mini…climaxes：　Draw　your　information　together　at　several　points　throughout　the　lecture；　
reemphasizing　relevant　ideas　and　conceptual　ties　and　providing　those　students　who　may　have　
“zoned　out”　earlier　with　the　means　to　reenter　the　flow　of　information。　
。　Value　the　ending：　The　conclusion　of　the　lecture　is　vital　to　its　total　impact；　often；　due　to　the　recency　
effect；　the　conclusion　will　be　remembered　best。　Use　it　well。　Never　rush　in　the　last　quarter　of　the　
class　to　say　quickly　all　of　the　essential　points。　It　is　better　to　reserve　the　time　needed　to　effectively　
summarize；　even　if　students　are　left　to　expand　a　few　of　the　main　points　on　their　own。　
IN　ADDITION　TO　LECTURE　

DISCUSSIONS　

Discussions　have　limited　value　in　introductory　courses　for　several　reasons。　Classes　are　frequently　too　large　
for　their　effective　use；　extroverts　in　the　front　rows　may　carry　on　a　lively　dialogue　while　their　peers　at　the　rear　
call　up　their　favorite　daydreams。　In　addition；　discussions　can　be　a　“pooling　of　ignorance”　because　students　
may　not　have　read　the　assigned　material　in　the　text　and　may　lack　the　background　necessary　to　contribute　to　
a　meaningful　discussion。　Despite　these　considerations；　students　benefit　from；　and　enjoy；　sharing　their　ideas　
and　experiences。　The　goal　is　to　make　that　sharing　educationally　beneficial。　Here　are　some　suggestions：　

。　Make　your　intention　clear　to　the　students　by　saying　“Let’s　talk　about　how　you　feel　when　you’ve　
been　punished—when　your　parents　criticize　you　or　you　get　a　ticket　for　a　traffic　violation；”　or　
“What　do　you　think　influences　our　self…esteem？　How　do　we　form　our　opinions　about　
ourselves？”　
。　Plan　topics　for　discussion　around　experiences　students　have　had；　a　film　that　has　been　shown；　
or　a　situation　that　you　have　described。　
。　Pause　after　introducing　the　topic　or　asking　the　question　to　give　students　time　to　consider　a　
response。　
。　Tactfully　summarize　or　repeat　the　point　made　by　a　student　if　the　student　has　expressed　himself　
or　herself　poorly　or　did　not　speak　loudly　enough　to　be　heard　by　class　members。　
。　Be　receptiv