心理学与生活-第47章
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Premack; D。 (1986)。 Gavagai! The Future History of the Ape Language Controversy。 Cambridge: MIT
Press。 A personal look by one of the leading figures in primate munication into the major
issues surrounding the ape language controversy。
Reed; S。 (1997)。 Cognition: Theory and Applications (4th ed。)。 Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing。
Provides an overview of the major theories and experimental findings in the field of cognitive
psychology。
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CHAPTER 9: COGNITIVE PROCESSES
DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 10: COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Overview
An exploration into the higher mental processes—reasoning; planning; and problem solving—
and why the cognitive revolution is attracting such diverse investigators; from philosophers to
puter scientists。
Key Issues
The impact of the puter on the study of cognitive psychology; puters that think like
human beings; the parts of the brain used in reading; how human beings organize and
categorize concepts; and how the human mind and puters think alike。
Demonstration
Analysis of cerebral blood flow during cognitive tasks。
Interviews
Leading cognitive psychologist Howard Gardner discusses the impact of the puter on the
study of cognitive psychology。
Nobel Prize winner Herbert Simon discusses his work on producing a puter that thinks
and solves problems like a human。
Michael Posner uses brain…imaging techniques to explore what parts of the brain are used
during reading。
Robert Glaser examines why some individuals have not developed basic skills in various types
of learning while others have developed high levels of prehension。
PROGRAM 11: JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING
Overview
A look at the process of making judgments and decisions; how and why people make good and
bad judgments; and the psychology of risk taking。
Key Issues
The relationship between judgment and decision making; groupthink exhibited in The Bay of
Pigs cabinet meetings; Cognitive Dissonance theory and experiments; and good versus poor
negotiating techniques
Archival Demonstrations
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman use “person in the street” respondents to illustrate
fallacies of human intuition。
Training program to improve decision making。
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Classic early dissonance experiment by Festinger and Carlsmith。
Interviews
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman examine the relationship between decision making and
the principles of availability; reasoning by similarity; anchoring effect; and risk aversion。
Psychologist Irving Janis discusses his study on the impact of groupthink on the Kennedy
administration’s decision to implement The Bay of Pigs operation。
Max Bazerman examines good and bad negotiating techniques。
Psychologist Leon Festinger examines how people e to love the things for which they suffer。
FILMS AND VIDEOS
Age of Intelligent Machines (1987)。 IU (AIMS); 29 minutes
Examines the world of artificial intelligence (AI) and expert systems。 Looks at how a new
generation of machines can perform functions once thought impossible; such as diagnose illnesses;
create original art; and navigate jets。 Explains that one of the major goals of AI research is to learn
how the human brain works and to duplicate the human ability to use judgment。 Features
contributions by many leading researchers。
Can We Talk to the Animals? (1987)。 IU (CORT); 30 minutes
Examines research on human–animal munication that indicates chimpanzees and dolphins
are capable of understanding words rather than just exhibiting learned responses。
munication: The Nonverbal Agenda (1988)。 CRM; 30 minutes
Provides an overview of the field of nonverbal munication。 Examines how a variety of
behaviors; such as tone of voice; posture; facial expressions; use of space; eye contact; and body
movement may either reinforce or contradict verbal messages。
The Mind: Thinking (1988)。 CRM; 24 minutes
Thinking is defined as the ability to manipulate a model of the world and to plan a course of
appropriate action。 Discusses two “failures” in psychology created by our misunderstanding of
thinking: the Prefrontal Lobotomies and the use of IQ Tests to measure thinking。
CASE STUDY LECTURE LAUNCHER
At the age of 16; Edith Eva Eger’s world turned upside down。 She and her family were suddenly
arrested and interned in Auschwitz; a Nazi concentration camp in Poland。 Shortly after they
arrived at Auschwitz; her mother was sent to the gas chamber。 Before she was taken away; she
urged Edith and her sister to live their lives fully。 “Remember;” she said; “what you put inside your
brain; no one can take away。” (Eger; 1990; p。 6)。
In the horror…filled existence of concentration camp life; Edith found that the basic logic of the world
was reversed。 The notions of good behavior she had learned growing up “were replaced by a kind
of animal quiver; which instantly smelled out danger and acted to deflect it。” Matters of life and
death were decided as casually as flipping a coin。 You could be sent to the “showers of death” for
having a loosely tied shoelace。
After years of being brutalized; the camp inmates longed for freedom; yet; paradoxically; also
dreaded it。 When their liberators arrived; some prisoners “rushed forward but most retreated and
even returned to their barracks。”
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CHAPTER 9: COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Edith was a fortunate survivor。 She later married; immigrated to the United States; and became a
clinical psychologist。 Recently; at the age of 61; Dr。 Eger’s need to understand the twisted reality of
the camps motivated her to return to Auschwitz。 “I came to mourn the dead and celebrate the living;
I also needed to formally put an end to the denial that I had been a victim and to assign guilt to the
oppressor。” For many years; she had denied the horrible truths of her camp experiences; but
eventually denial was unacceptable to her。 By reliving the events of her incarceration and forcing
herself to think about the meaning of that horror; Dr。 Eger believes she has bee better able to
help others understand events that seem inexplicable in the context of their everyday lives。
The fundamental human desire to prehend the nature of one’s existence that motivated Dr。 Eger
was eloquently described by another survivor of Auschwitz; Italian writer Primo Levi。 He reports;
“It might be surprising that in the camps one of the most frequent states of mind was curiosity。 And
yet; besides being frightened; humiliated; and desperate; we were curious: hungry for bread and
also to understand。 The world around us was upside down and somebody must have turned it
upside down 。 。 。 to twist that which was straight; to befoul that which was clean” (Levi; 1985; p。
99)。
Edith took her mother’s last words to heart。 No one can take away what she has put in her brain。
No one can take away what you have put in your brain。 By being a psychotherapist; Dr。 Eger
chose a career in which she helps others cope with personal realities that defy rational explanation。
Noting that today’s college students have little knowledge of the Holocaust; she hopes “that some
day; when they are ready; my grandchildren will have the curiosity to ask their grandmother
questions about the time when the world was turned upside down。 So that if it starts tilting again;
they and million of others can redress it before it is too late” (p。 9)。
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CHAPTER 10
Intelligence and Intelligence Assessment
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to:
1。 Describe both the original purposes of psychological assessment and the purposes for
which it is monly used today
2。 Identify the methods used to assess individual differences in practice
3。 Define reliability and validity
4。 pare and contrast the major theories of individual differences
5。 Define the construct of intelligence
6。 Describe Binet’s approach to intelligence testing
7。 municate what is meant by the “politics of intelligence”
8。 Identify objective and projective intelligence tests
9。 Explain the differences between intelligence tests that are theory based and those that are
empirically based
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I。 What Is Assessment?
A。 Psychological Assessment is the use of specified testing procedures to evaluate the abilities;
behaviors; and personal qualities of people
B。 History of Assessment
1。 Methods used in China in the 1800s were observed by missionaries
and later brought to England
2。 Sir Francis Galton was a central figure in the development Western
intelligence testing
a) Tried to apply Darwinian evolutionary theory to the study of
human abilities
b) Postulated four ideas regarding intelligence assessment
(i) Differences in intelligence were quantifiable
(ii) Differences between individuals formed a normal
distribution
(iii) Intelligence could be measured objectively
(iv) The extent to which two sets of test scores were
related could be statistically determined by a
procedure he called co…relation; later to bee
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CHAPTER 10: INTELLIGENCE AND INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT
correlation
c) Galton began the eugenics movement; advocation of improving
humankind by selective inbreeding while discouraging
reproduction among the biologically inferior
C。 Basic Features of Formal Assessment
1。 Formal assessment procedures should meet three requirements:
a) Reliability: Instruments must be trusted to give consistent
scores
b) Validity: Instruments must measure what the assessor intends
it to measure
c) Standardization: Instruments must be administered to all
persons in the same way under the same conditions
2。 Methods of obtaining reliability; validity; and standardization:
a) Reliability
(i) Test…retest reliability
(ii) Parallel forms
(iii) Internal consistency
Split…half reliability
b) Validity
(i) Face validity
(ii) Criterion validity; or predictive validity
(iii) Construct validity
3。 Norms and Standardization
a) Norms are typical scores or statistics
b) Standardization is the administration of a testing device to all
II。Intelligence Assessment
A。 Intelligence is a very general mental capability that; among other things; involves the
ability to reason; plan; solve problems; think abstractly; prehend plex ideas; learn
quickly; and learn from experience
B。 Origins of Intelligence Testing
1。 Alfred Binet developed an objective test that could classify and
separate developmentally disabled children from normal
schoolchildren
a) Designed age…appropriate test items
b) puted average scores for normal children at different ages
expressed in mental age and chronological age
2。 Features of Binet’s approach
a) Scores interpreted as an estimate of current performance; not
as a measure of innate intelligence
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b) Wanted scores to identify children needing special help; not
to stigmatize them
c) Emphasized training and opportunity
d) Constructed his test on empirical; rather than t