心理学与生活-第49章

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the　information…processing　approach。　Information　processing　is　part　of　cognitive　psychology；　some　
aspects　of　which　are　applicable　to　developmental　psychology。　

Piagetian　approaches　look　at　individual　differences　in　the　rate　of　development。　This　approach　is　
developmental　in　nature。　Children　progress　through　the　various　developmental　tasks　at　different　
rates　and　ages；　from　sensorimotor　on　through　the　various　tasks　of　formal　operations。　Now；　let　us　
discuss　some　of　the　actual　instruments　utilized　to　measure　intelligence；　and　what　they　tell　us　or　fail　
to　tell　us。　

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Some　of　the　instruments　monly　used　to　assess　intelligence　quotient　（IQ）　in　children　are　the　
following：　

·　Stanford…Binet　
·　The　WAIS　and　WISC　
·　The　Bayley　Scales　of　Infant　Development　
The　Stanford…Binet　for　children　consists　of　“games”　and　identification　problems。　The　WAIS　is　
primarily　pen　and　paper；　and　the　WISC　is　both　pen　and　paper　and　practical　ability。　The　Bayley　
consists　of　trying　to　get　the　child　to　play　the　same　game　that　you　are　playing。　

“IQ　Tests”　are　one　of　the　more　monly　used　and　abused　psychological　instruments　ever　devised。　
Always　be　aware　that　IQ　tests　measure　one　and　only　one　type　of　intelligence：　that　which　is　required　
to　succeed　in　formal　educational　institutions。　Realistically　speaking；　the　IQ　score　is　the　best　single　
predictor　we　have　of　academic　achievement　ability；　but　IQ　tests　are　objective　rather　than　projective　
measures。　Examples　of　IQ　tests　with　which　you；　as　students；　are　most　familiar　are　the　SAT　or　ACT。　
If　you　go　past　a　baccalaureate　degree　in　your　educational　process；　you　will　have　the　traumatizing　
experience　of　being　acquainted　with　the　GRE；　LSAT；　MCAT；　DCAT；　or　whatever　applies　to　your　
area　of　graduate　interest。　

IQ　scores　can　only　be　interpreted　in　a　relative　sense。　Your　score　is　based　on　standardized　norms　
and　indicates　how　well　you；　as　an　individual；　performed　on　a　given　test　instrument　relative　to　other　
individuals　of　the　same　age　and　background；　when　tested　under　the　same　constraints。　The　normal　
curve；　or　normal　distribution；　is　used　to　define　the　distribution　of　IQ　scores。　

Once　more；　relativity　is　the　essential　concept。　Whether　or　not　your　child　is　“gifted”　in　a　positive　or　
negative　manner　is　relative　to　where　he/she　scored　in　parison　to　other　children　who　took　the　
same　instrument；　at　the　same　time；　under　the　same　conditions。　When　looking　at　IQ　scores　and　
interpreting　them；　you　will　frequently　hear　the　following　terms。　They　are　key　to　understanding　
relativity　and　IQ　measurement。　

Stability　refers　to　the　individual’s　relative　standing　over　time。　

Change　refers　to　the　change　in　a　given　individual’s　absolute　scores　over　time。　

In　summing　up；　IQ　scores　are　useful　to　us　in　determining　the　individual’s　potential　for　success　in　
an　academic　environment　but　beyond　that　function　their　applicability　fades　rapidly。　As　students　
and　as　future　parents；　you　need　to　be　aware　of　the　applications　in　which　the　IQ　test　is　relevant；　and　
in　which　it　is　not。　

What　Color　Is　an　IQ？　

Critics　of　intelligence　tests　claim　that　one　reason　that　African　Americans　and　other　minorities　score　
lower　is　that　the　tests　are　written　in　a　“foreign”　language。　The　test　instructions　and　questions；　
written　in　“standard”　English　and　testing　“standard”　concepts；　may　not　make　sense　to　children　
who　use　a　different　（but　not　inferior）　language　to　deal　with　“nonstandard”　concepts。　

To　illustrate　the　gap　between　standard　English　and　“black”　English；　sociologist　Adrian　Dove　
developed　the　Dove　Counterbalance　General　Intelligence　Test　（1968）；　a　set　of　30　multiple…choice　
questions。　This　test；　also　known　as　the　“chitling　test；”　uses　“Black　English”　to　test　knowledge　of　
black　cultural　concepts。　For　example；　could　you　respond　to　the　following？　

Questions：　

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。　What　is　a　“blood”？　
。　“Bird　or　yardbird”　was　the　jacket　jazz　lovers　from　coast　to　coast　hung　on　_____？　
。　Do　you　know　the　difference　between　a　“gray”　and　a　“spook”？　
Answers：　

。　A　“blood”　refers　to　someone　of　African　American　descent。　
。　Charlie　Parker；　who　spent　time　in　prison；　was　nicknamed　“Bird。”　
。　“Grays”　are　pale…faced　whites　and　“spooks”　are　African　Americans。　
Based　on　just　this　minimal　information；　it　would　seem　that　American　“whites”　and　American　
“blacks”　are　people　separated　by　a　mon　language！　Psychologist　Robert　L。　Williams　feels　that　
the　differences　in　language　can　be　much　subtler　than　the　Black　English　used　on　test　items　on　the　
chitling　test。　He　and　L。　Wendell　Rivers　designed　a　study　to　measure　the　actual　effect　of　this　
language　gap　on　IQ　scores　（1972）。　They　enlisted　the　aid　of　African　American　teachers　and　graduate　
students　to　translate　the　instructions　of　an　IQ　test　into　nonstandard　English。　The　test　they　used　was　
the　Boehm　Test　of　Basic　Concepts　（BTBC）；　an　IQ　test　that　asks　children　to　mark　the　picture　that　
matches　a　concept　of　time；　space；　or　quantity。　Their　participants　were　890　African　American　
children　attending　either　kindergarten　or　first　or　second　grade。　The　children　were　divided　into　two　
groups；　and　the　psychologists　controlled　for　the　variables　of　the　scores　received　on　other　IQ　tests；　
age；　sex；　and　grade　level。　One　half　was　given　the　standard　version　of　the　Boehm　and　one　half　was　
given　the　nonstandard　version。　Results　were　stated　as　follows。　

“The　children　who　took　the　nonstandard　version　scored　significantly　higher　than　those　who　

took　the　test　with　the　standard　instructions。　What　is　surprising　is　that　the　nonstandard　

instructions　seem　to　differ　little　from　the　standard　version。　For　example；　the　instructions　on　the　

standard　version　read　“behind　the　sofa；”　while　the　nonstandard　version　asked　the　child　to　

mark　a　picture　of　something　that　was　“in　back　of　the　couch。”　

The　Black　Intelligence　Test　of　Cultural　Homogeneity　（the　BITCH　test）　was　Williams’　next　
experiment　in　designing　a　culture…specific　test　for　African　Americans。　Williams　administered　100　
vocabulary　items；　selected　from　a　slang　dictionary　and　his　personal　experiences；　to　a　group　of　200　
sixteen…　to　eighteen…year…old　participants；　half　of　whom　were　African　American　and　half　of　whom　
were　white。　On　this　IQ　test；　the　whites　got　lower　scores；　an　average　score　of　51；　pared　to　an　
average　of　87　for　the　African　Americans。　

As　Williams　demonstrated；　psychologists　can　develop　a　test　that　favors　a　particular　group　rather　
easily。　However；　the　problem　that　has　confronted　the　designers　of　tests　is　how　to　design　a　test　that　
will　apply　to　all　groups　fairly。　Moreover；　after　the　test　is　designed；　how　do　we　best　use　the　data　it　
provides？　Williams　（1974）　stresses　that　we　must　remember　that：　

。　An　IQ　is　only　a　score　on　a　test　that　measures　specific　skills。　
。　An　IQ　should　not　be　used　to　label　children　（as　it　often　is）。　
。　Illiteracy；　or　a　different　type　of　literacy；　should　not　be　confused　with　intellectual　ability。　An　
IQ　score　should　be　used　to　measure　an　individual’s　ability　to　adapt　to　and　function　
effectively　in　society。　
Should　IQ　tests　have　color　and　culture？　Is　separate　but　equal　the　best　alternative　when　it　es　to　
IQ　tests；　or　should　we　just　be　more　careful　in　using　IQ　scores？　What　do　you　think？　Think　carefully；　
because　you　could　be　the　next　group　to　use　a　“nonstandard”　form　of　language。　

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Mental　Retardation：　The　Long　Childhood　

Concern　and　care　for　the　developmentally　delayed；　or　retarded；　individual　is　a　recent　phenomenon。　
Throughout　most　of　history；　no　special　attention　has　been　given　to　the　mildly　developmentally　
delayed　or　disabled　person。　These　people　lived　a　life　of　manual　labor　and　poverty；　sometimes　
rejected　by　family　and　munity。　In　ancient　and　medieval　times；　the　more　severely　
developmentally　disabled　were　frequently　abandoned　and　left　to　die　of　exposure　or　starvation；　or　to　
be　killed　by　animals。　Into　the　16th　and　17th　centuries；　severely　disabled　children　were　often　thought　
to　be　divine　punishment　of　the　parents；　or　possessed　by　Satan。　

As　society　became　somewhat　more　humane；　institutions　for　the　“feeble…minded”　were　established；　
though　the　lifestyle　of　these　individuals　did　not　necessarily　improve　as　a　result　of　such　institutions。　
These　individuals　lived　out　their　short　lives　in　drab　and　often　punitive　surroundings。　Many　were　
victims　of　genocide。　Hitler’s　goal　to　purify　the　Aryan　race　serves　as　a　chilling　exemplar　of　this　issue。　
It　is　estimated　that　300；000　developmentally　delayed　or　disabled　individuals　were　killed　under　
Hitler’s　leadership。　

Until　recent　years；　developmentally　delayed　or　disabled　individuals　were　classified　as　morons；　
imbeciles；　or　idiots；　depending　on　the　extent　of　disability。　The　genetic　disorder　we　now　call　Down　
syndrome　was　called　Mongolian　idiocy。　The　genetic　disorder　known　currently　as　Tay…Sachs　
disease　was　called　amaurotic　family　idiocy。　

The　situation　for　the　developmentally　delayed/disabled　individual　began　improving　in　the　1960s。　
President　Kennedy　spoke　out　for　these　individuals；　and　was　instrumental　in　making　funds　
available　for　research　in　this　area　and　education　for　the　developmentally　delayed　or　disabled。　The　
zeitgeist　of　the　60s　emphasized　environmental　factors　in　intelligence　and　challenged　the　view　that　
low　intelligence　is　genetically　programmed。　

Developmental　delay　or　disability　is　difficult　to　define　and；　at　one　point　in　time；　the　diagnosis　was　
made　entirely　based　on　IQ　scores。　Today；　the　child’s　adaptive　capacities　are　also　considered　in　
assessing　the　intellectual　capabilities　of　the　child。　Consideration　is　given　to　the　fact　that　the　
individual’s　self…help　skills；　socialization；　language；　and　motor　skills　are　significantly　less　well…
developed　than　those　of　normal　children　of　the　same　age。　There　remains　a　fuzzy　boundary；　between　
the　“almost　developmentally　delayed　or　disabled”　and　the　“just　barely　delayed　or　disabled。”　It　is　
estimated　that　about　3　percent　of　children　are　diagnosed　as　being　developmentally　delayed　or　
disabled。　A　diagnosis　of　developmental　delay　or　disability　is　not　made　after　age　18。　

Mild　Mental　Retardation。　Mildly　developmentally　delayed　or　disabled　children　have　an　IQ　of　
between　approximately　50　and　75；　and　these　account　for　approximately　80　percent　of　all　the　
developmentally　delayed　individuals。　Mildly　delayed/disabled　children　can　learn　to　read　and　
write　and　to　do　simple　arithmetic。　They　learn　slowly　and　have　great　difficulty　with　abstract　
concepts。　Their　disability　is　most　noticeable　in　school。　As　adults；　they　hold　jobs　and　live　
independently；　often　overing　the　stigma　of　retardation。　

Moderate　Mental　Retardation。　Moderately　delayed/disabled　children　have　an　IQ　between　35　and　

55。　About　12　percent　of　developmentally　delayed/disabled　children　fall　into　this　category；　many　of　
them　are　Down　syndrome　children。　Whereas　the　mildly　the　delayed/disabled　individual　is　
described；　as　“educable；”　the　moderately　delayed/disabled　child　is　described　as　“trainable。”　These　
children　use　language　and　can　learn　self…help　skills；　and　their　training　involve