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心理学与生活-第54章

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of lack of self…worth; 3 to 6 years 

d) petence vs。 inferiority: adequacy in basic social and 
intellectual skills vs。 feelings of failure and lack of self…
confidence; 6 years to puberty 

e) Identity vs。 role confusion: fortable sense of self vs。 
fragmented; unclear sense of self; adolescent years 

f) Intimacy vs。 isolation: capacity for mitment to another vs。 
feelings of separation; aloneness; early adulthood 

g) Generativity vs。 stagnation: concerns go beyond the self; to 
society vs。 self…indulgence and lack of future orientation; 
middle adulthood 

h) Ego…integrity vs。 despair: sense of satisfaction with life vs。 
feelings of futility and disappointment with life; later 
adulthood 

C。 Social Development in Childhood 
1。 Socialization is the lifelong process through which an individual’s 
behavior patterns; values; standards; skills; attitudes; and motives are 
shaped to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular 
society 
a) Most important socializing agent is the family 

b) Parental socialization goals for children range from 
behavioral pliance with specific social rules to 
internalizing of general social values 

2。 Attachment 
a) Attachment–the beginning of the process of social 
development–is the establishment of a close emotional 
relationship between a child and a mother; father; or other 
regular caregiver 

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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

b) Earliest function of attachment is ensuring of the infant’s 
survival 

c) In some nonhuman species; biology elicits attachment; such 
as imprinting; in which the infant automatically fixes on the 
first moving object it sees or hears 

d) Human infants rely on plex proximity…promoting signals 
to solidify adult—child bonding 

e) Bowlby posits that infants will form attachments to 
individuals who consistently and appropriately respond to 
their signals 

3。 Assessing the Quality and Consequences of Attachment 
a) Secure attachment has powerful; lasting; beneficial effects; 
which include enabling the child to: 

(i) Learn various prosocial behaviors 
(ii) Take risks 
(iii) Enter into novel situations 
(iv) Seek and accept intimacy in personal relationships 
b) Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test is widely used for assessing 
attachment with infant response patterns falling into three 
categories 

(i) Securely attached children show some distress when 
parent leaves; seek proximity; fort; and contact at 
reunion; then gradually return to play 
(ii) Insecurely attached…avoidant children seem aloof and 
may actively avoid and ignore the parent on return 
(iii) Insecurely attached…ambivalent/resistant children bee 
quite upset and anxious at parent’s departure; cannot 
be forted at reunion; showing both anger and 
resistance to the parent but simultaneously 
expressing desire for contact 
c) Categorizations based on the Strange Situation have proved to 
be highly predictive of a child’s subsequent behavior in a 
variety of settings 

4。 Parenting Styles and Parenting Practices 
a) Researchers feel the most beneficial parenting style is at the 
intersection of the dimensions of demandingness and 
responsiveness 

(i) Demandingness refers to parent’s willingness to act as 
a socializing agent 
(ii) Responsiveness refers to the parent’s recognition of the 
child’s individuality
b) Parenting styles


(i) Authoritative parents make appropriate demands on 
the child; but are responsive; keeping channels of 
192 


CHAPTER 11: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

munication open。 This style of parenting is most 
likely to produce an effective parent…child bond 

(ii) Authoritarian parents apply discipline with little 
attention to the child’s autonomy 
(iii) Indulgent parents fail to help children learn about the 
structure of social rules in which they must live 
c) Parents with the same overall style of parenting may place 
different priorities on the various socialization goals they 
consider important for their children 

d) Parenting practices are a response to particular goals; with both 
parents’ general attitudes and specific behaviors being 
important for charting the life course of the child 

e) A 35…year longitudinal study of parenting style revealed that 
mothers’ treatment of their 5…year…old children was 
significantly associated with social adjustment in the child 
more than 30 years later 

5。 Contact fort and Social Experience 
a) (i) Cupboard theory proposed that infants bee attached to 
parents because parents provide them with food; their most 
basic physical need 

b) (ii) Harlow proposed that infants attach to those who 
provide them with contact fort and tested his theory with 
infant macaque monkeys 

(i) Separated infants from mothers at birth and placed 
them in cages with access to one of two artificial 
“mothers;” one made of wire and one of terry cloth 
(ii) Wire mother provided food source; but babies spent 
more time with terry cloth mother 
(iii) Babies used terry cloth mother as fort source 
when frightened and “base of operations” when 
exploring new stimuli 
(iv) Harlow also found that the bond of the infant 
monkeys to the mother substitute was insufficient for 
healthy social development。 Females deprived of 
interaction opportunities with other monkeys had 
difficulty forming social and sexual relationships in 
adulthood 
c) Suomi found that placing emotionally vulnerable infant 
monkeys in the “foster care” of supportive mothers provided 
the infants with coping skills and information essential for 
recruiting support from other monkeys; as well as for 
maintaining high social status within the group 

D。 Social Development in Adolescence 
1。 The Experience of Adolescence: The Myth of Adolescent “Storm and 
Stress” 
193 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

a) “Storm and stress” disputed by cultural anthropologists 
Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict as being nonapplicable to 
many non…Western cultures 

b) Data indicate that the few adolescents who do experience 
serious maladjustment are likely to continue to do so as 
adults; with a strong link between adolescent conduct 
problems and adult criminality 

c) Erikson considered the discovery of one’s true identity to be 
the essential task of adolescence 

2。 Social relationships 
a) Peers 

(i)Peers now pete with parents in shaping of attitudes 
and behaviors 

(ii) Social skills and roles are refined with peers 
(iii) Peers bee an increasingly important source of 
social support; with an increase in anxiety being 
associated with peer rejection 
(iv) Peer pressure to conform to peer values and behaviors 
peaks around ages 12 to 13 
b) Autonomy is the transition from parental authority to 
reasonable independence on the part of the adolescent 

(i) Transition may be difficult for parents 
(ii) Parent…child relationships may have more built…in 
potential for conflict than do peer relationships 
3。 Future Goals 
a) Setting goals for the future involves current appraisal of one’s 
abilities and interests 

b) Selection of future occupation involves tasks central to 
identity formation; including awareness of alternatives; and 
making and following through on choices 

E。 Social Development in Adulthood 
1。 Intimacy 
a) Intimacy refers to the capacity to make a full mitment to 
another person; sexually; emotionally; and morally 

b) Intimacy occurs in friendships as well as romantic 
relationships; and requires openness; courage; ethical 
strength; and usually some promise of one’s personal 
preferences 

c) Research confirms Erikson’s supposition that social intimacy 
is a prerequisite for psychological well…being across the adult 
life stages 

d) Young adulthood is the time in which many people enter into 
marriages or other stable relationships; often deciding to 
include children in their lives 

(i) Males and females make the transition to parenthood 
194 


CHAPTER 11: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

in different ways 

(ii) Arrival of children may push parents into more 
traditional sex…role behaviors 
(iii) For some couples; marital satisfaction erodes due to 
conflicts as children pass through their own 
adolescent years 
(iv) Parents may enjoy their children most when the 
children no longer live at home 
e) Research indicates that approximately two out of three 
couples now married will divorce; but consequences of 
remaining in an unsatisfying marriage are more unfortunate 
for females than males 

(i) Marital dissatisfaction for women often results in 
impairment of both physical and mental health 
(ii) Men almost always benefit from marriage; even a bad 
marriage; while women suffer in bad marriages 
(iii) Women are more likely to care for an unhealthy; 
elderly husband—and go on to a period of mourning 
his death and of financial insecurity 
f) In later life; the balance of social interactions shifts somewhat; 
from family to friends 

(i) The elderly interact with fewer people; but the nature 
of the interactions change in order for intimacy needs 
to be met 
(ii) Selective social interaction theory proposes that as we 
age; we bee more selective in choosing social 
partners who satisfy our emotional needs 
2。 Generativity 
a) Generativity refers to mitment beyond oneself to family; 
work; society; or future generations 

b) Erikson’s last crisis of adulthood is the conflict between ego…
integrity and despair 

c) Most adults review their lives with a sense of wholeness and 
satisfaction 

3。 The Cultural Construction of Late Adulthood: addresses cultural 
beliefs and expectations about later life; the stereotypical depictions of 
the elderly 
a) Overall stereotype is negative 

b) Stereotype may serve to change the lifestyle experience of 
older adults for the worse 

c) Negative expectations of their performance by the elderly may 
lead to impaired performance 

d) Caretakers may artificially bring about patterns of increased 
dependence via the dependency…support script 

e) Ageism is prejudice against older people that leads to 

195 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

discrimination that limits their opportunities; isolates them; 

and fosters negative self…images 

VI。 Gender Development 
A。 Early human differences perceived by children are entirely social—they sense sex 
differences before acquiring anatomical knowledge 
B。 Sex and Gender 
1。 Sex differences are biologically based characteristics that distinguish 
males from females 
a) Include different reproductive functions and differences in 
anatomy and hormones 

b) Differences are universal; biologically determined; and 
unchanged by social influence 

c) Over time; sex differences have led to development of 
traditional social roles for males and females 

2。 Gender is a psychological phenomenon; referring to learned; sex…
related behaviors and attitudes 
3。 Gender identity is the individual’s sense of maleness or femaleness; 
and includes awareness and acceptance of one’s own sex 
a) Develops at an early age 
b) Is important to child’s psychological well…being 

C。 The Acquisition of Gende

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