心理学与生活-第56章

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diagnosed　as　senile　dementia。　The　cause　of　Alzheimer’s　was　unknown；　but　senile　dementia　was　
attributed　to　age。　As　a　result　of　the　similarity　of　most　cases　of　senile　dementia　to　Alzheimer’s；　it　
came　to　be　known　as　senile　dementia　of　the　Alzheimer’s　type。　In　recent　years；　the　distinction　based　
on　age　of　onset　has　gradually　been　dropped。　Presently；　dementia　is　medically　defined　as　a　loss　of　
mental　petence　with　significant　decline　from　the　person’s　former　mental　capability。　

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CHAPTER　11：　HUMAN　DEVELOPMENT　ACROSS　THE　LIFE　SPAN　

Approximately　5％　of　people　over　65　develop　Alzheimer’s；　with　the　incidence　rising　to　about　20％　in　
those　past　the　age　of　80。　It　is　a　degenerative　disorder；　progressive　in　its　destruction　of　functional　
abilities；　is　irreversible；　and　terminal。　At　the　present；　there　is　no　known　cure；　although　some　
medication　has　been　approved　for　its　treatment。　Diminution　and　loss　of　short…term　memory　is　
generally　the　first　indication　of　Alzheimer’s。　A　set　of　questions　designed　to　test　the　reality　
orientation　of　the　individual　includes　such　questions　as　“Where　do　you　live？”　and　“What　day　of　
the　week　is　it？”　The　individual’s　responses　are　one　aspect　of　making　tentative　diagnosis　in　the　early　
stages　of　the　disorder。　Arriving　at　a　tentative　diagnosis　of　Alzheimer’s　also　involves　a　process　of　
elimination。　Organic　brain　disorders　such　as　schizophrenia；　tumors；　and　strokes　must　be　ruled　out　
as　potential　causes　of　the　symptoms　being　displayed　by　the　patient　before　hazarding　a　tentative　
diagnosis　of　Alzheimer’s。　

Following　the　initial　loss　of　memory；　deterioration　of　cognitive　functioning　is　noted　and；　as　the　
disease　progresses；　the　individual　gradually　loses　the　ability　to　walk；　to　feed　him…　or　herself；　and　to　
control　the　bladder　and　bowels。　In　the　terminal　stage　of　the　disease；　the　individual　is　reduced　to　a　
vegetative　state；　unaware　of　the　presence　of　friends　and　family；　the　surrounding　environment；　and　
even　his　or　her　own　identity。　Death　usually　occurs　four　to　five　years　after　onset；　but　the　range　is　two　
to　ten　years。　

The　cause　of　Alzheimer’s　disease　is　not　known。　The　disease；　or　some　form　of　it；　may　be　genetically　
transmitted。　There　are　similarities　between　Alzheimer’s　disease　and　Down　syndrome。　Down　
syndrome　is　sometimes　called　Trisomy　21　to　indicate　the　presence　of　three；　rather　than　two；　
chromosomes　at　the　21st　position。　A　gene　on　the　same　chromosome　has　been　tentatively　linked　to　
Alzheimer’s。　Other　hypotheses　about　the　causal　agent　for　Alzheimer’s　include　a　slow…acting　virus　
and　toxic　substances　such　as　aluminum。　Whatever　the　primary　causal　agent；　its　presence　is　
believed　to　result　in　biochemical　changes　in　the　brain。　These　changes　have　been　posited　to　include　
reduction　in　the　availability　of　one　or　more　of　the　following　substances：　acetylcholine；　a　
neurotransmitter；　corticotropin…releasing　factor；　a　hormone；　and　ribonucleic　acid　（RNA）。　Another　
change　noted　in　brain　tissue　is　the　appearance　of　fibers　in　the　cytoplasm　of　neurons。　Dr。　Alois　
Alzheimer　called　these　fibers　neurofibrillary　tangles。　He　also　observed　that　some　neurons　appeared　
to　have　shriveled；　with　their　dendrites　deteriorating　to　the　degree　that　the　cell　could　no　longer　
function；　causing　the　neurons　to　collapse。　Alzheimer　referred　to　sections　of　the　brain　where　clusters　
of　the　collapsed　neurons　were　found　as　neuritic　plaques。　

In　spite　of　scientific　advances　in　knowledge　about　Alzheimer’s　disease；　for　the　patient　and　the　
patient’s　family；　the　disease　remains　irreversible；　incurable；　and　virtually　untreatable。　Custodial　
care　by　a　family　member　at　home　or　in　an　institution　is　generally　required　as　the　disorder　
progresses；　in　order　to　prevent　the　patient　from　hurting　him…　or　herself　or　wandering　off　and　getting　
lost。　The　nature　of　the　disease　is　best　described　as　regressive　in　that　a　once…petent　adult　loses　
the　ability　to　think　rationally；　language　deteriorates；　temper　tantrums　like　those　of　early　childhood　
may　occur；　motor　skills　are　lost；　and　finally；　with　loss　of　the　ability　to　feed　oneself　and　to　control　the　
bladder　and　bowels；　the　regression　to　an　infant…like　state　is　plete。　

Critical　Periods：　The　Story　of　Genie　

In　1970；　a　13…year…old　girl　was　discovered　in　Los　Angeles。　Her　name　was　Genie；　and　the　conditions　
in　which　she　was　found　were　appalling。　Genie　had　been　treated　like　an　animal　since　the　age　of　20　
months。　She　was　confined　to　a　small；　curtained　room　and　spent　most　of　her　days　strapped　to　a　
potty…chair；　unable　to　move　except　for　her　hands　and　feet。　At　night；　Genie　was　confined　in　a　cage…
like　crib；　and　restrained　in　a　straightjacket…type　garment。　She　had　no　bowel　or　bladder　control；　
could　not　stand　in　an　erect　posture；　was　severely　malnourished；　and　was　unable　to　chew　solid　
food。　Genie　was　also　mute；　she　could　not　speak　and　could　not　understand　language。　The　only　
sounds　she　had　ever　heard　were　those　made　by　her　father　on　the　occasions　he　beat　her　for　crying　or　
making　noises。　Genie　had　been　held　prisoner　by　her　father；　a　man　who　never　spoke　to　her；　and　

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would　not　allow　anyone　else　to　do　so。　

Genie　was　removed　from　her　father’s　custody；　and　taken　to　Los　Angeles　Children’s　Hospital；　where　
she　was　nursed　back　to　physical　health。　She　underwent　psychological　evaluation　to　determine　her　
mental　status　and　level　of　cognitive　functioning；　including　her　ability　to　produce　and　prehend　
language。　Following　all　necessary　assessments；　psychologists　embarked　on　the　task　of　teaching　
Genie　language。　Because　Genie　was　attempting　to　acquire　language　at　age　13；　her　psychologists　
were　presented　with　a　unique　opportunity　to　study　the　critical　period　theory　relative　to　learning　
language；　the　notion　that　there　is　a　time　early　in　a　child’s　life　when　language　learning　must　begin；　if　
language　is　to　be　learned　at　all。　Genie　was　far　past　that　proposed　critical　period。　Further；　she　knew　
no　grammar　and　had　virtually　no　language　ability。　

The　researchers　working　with　Genie　approached　the　task　of　teaching　her　language　in　much　the　
same　manner　they　would　teach　a　younger　child；　by　direct　exposure　to　spoken　language　as　a　
function　of　engagement　in　daily　activities。　Initially；　Genie　would　speak　only　one　or　two　words　at　a　
time；　but　she　did　progress；　up　to　a　point。　Though　she　eventually　progressed　to　the　degree　of　
bining　two　and　three　words　into　phrases；　she　never　progressed　beyond　the　level　of　a　3…　or　4year…
old　child　in　her　language　abilities；　and　never　made　the　progression　from　simple　words　into　
grammatically　correct　sentences。　

The　fact　that　Genie　actually　did　acquire　some　facility　for　language　denied　support　for　the　
hypothesis　that　there　is　a　critical　period　for　language　acquisition；　and　that　this　period　falls　
somewhere　between　age　2　and　puberty。　However；　Genie’s　failure　to　attain　fluency　and　grammar　did　
point　to　the　potential　for　an　optimal　period　for　language　acquisition；　a　period　that；　if　missed；　would　
result　in　failure　ever　to　attain　plete　facility　for　language。　Unfortunately；　no　more　specific　
information　could　be　gained　from　Genie’s　experiences；　because　her　lack　of　facility　for　language　
could　be　attributable　to　her　severely　malnourished　state；　the　emotional　and　physical　abuse　suffered　
at　the　hands　of　her　father；　and　her　social　isolation；　as　much　as　to　a　potential　optimal　period　for　
language　acquisition。　

By　age　24；　Genie　had　received　11　years　of　special　education　and　rehabilitation　to　include　foster　care；　
yet　her　language　capability　remained　short　of　that　expected　in　a　5…year…old　child。　Did　Genie　miss　
her　critical　period　for　language　acquisition？　We　do　not　know。　Her　plight　has　offered　many　insights　
to　developmental　psychologists；　but　many　final　answers　remain　elusive。　

Craig；　G。　J。；　&　Kermis；　M。　D。　（1995）。　Children　Today。　Englewood　Cliffs；　NJ：　Prentice…Hall。　

Stage　Theory：　What　Is　a　“Stage　Theory？”　

As　instructors；　we　are　familiar　with　“stage”　theories；　as　we　spend　a　great　deal　of　time　studying　
them。　Freud’s　stages　of　psychosexual　development；　Erikson’s　eight　stages　of　man；　Kohlberg’s　stages　
of　moral　development；　and　Piaget’s　stages　of　cognitive　development　are　part　of　our　world；　but　what　
is　implied　to　our　students　when　we　refer　to　a　given　theory　as　a　“stage　theory”？　

Reber　（1985）　defines　stage　theory　as　“a　label　applicable　to　any　theory　of　development　that　
characterizes　growth；　be　it　physical；　sensory…motor；　cognitive；　moral；　etc。；　as　a　progression　through　
a　sequence　of　stages”　（p。　724）。　He　further　states　that　stage　theories　tend　to　be　either　maturational　or　
interactional　in　nature；　that　they　are　biologically　determined　or　result　from　interactions　between　
biological　and　experiential　factors。　

Actually；　even　if　we　didn’t　use　the　word　“stage”　in　referring　to　many　of　our　psychological　theories；　
we　would　still　be　able　to　easily　discern　which　theories　are　stage　theories　and　which　are　not；　because　
there　are　four　properties　that　define　stage　theories。　Without　any　one　of　these　properties；　you　do　not　
have　a　stage　theory。　These　properties　are：　

·　A　stage　theory　must　predict　qualitative　differences　in　behavior；　over　both　time　and　
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experience　

。　A　stage　theory　must　assume　invariance　of　the　sequence　of　stages　
。　A　stage　theory　assumes　structural　cohesiveness　of　a　stage；　the　behaviors　within　a　stage　
must　share　a　mon　conceptual　base　
。　There　must　be　a　hierarchical　integration　of　structures　from　stage　to　stage；　so　that　later　
stages　incorporate　and　expand　on　the　structures　from　earlier　stages　
Now；　back　to　our　question；　what　does　the　term　stage　theory　imply　and　subsequently　mean　to　our　
students？　First；　it　means　that　a　stage　theory　is　presumed　to　be　universal—which　is　what　“over　both　
time　and　experience　means。　Piaget’s　theory　of　cognitive　development　offers　an　easy　example。　Piaget　
proposed　that　children；　regardless　of　nationality；　ethnicity；　or　sociocultural　background；　all　
experience　their　intellectual　development　in　the　same　way。　The　same　sequence　of　events　unfolds；　
regardless　of　where　the　child　lives　and　under　what　conditions。　Further；　Piaget　proposed　that　the　
changes　were　not　only　predictable　and　universal；　but　that　the　changes　were　qualitatively　different　
as　the　child　moved　from　one　stage　to　the　next。　For　example；　a　7…year…old　child　can　conserve　liquid；　
but　a　4…year…old　cannot。　That　is　a　qualitative　difference　in　the　thought　process；　and　it　is　a　function　of　
the　developmental　process。　

Second；　stage　theories　and　stage　theorists　believe　that　there　can　be　no　latitude　in　the　progression　of　
the　stages　of　development。　In　Eriksonian　terms；　a　child　must　resolve　the　trust/mistrust　conflict　and　
learn　to　trust　before　he　or　she　can　move　onto　the　stage　of　autonomy　versus　self…doubt；　because　
unless　the　trust/mistrust　conflict　has　been　resolved；　the　child　has　no　possibility　of　resolving　the　
autonomy　issue。　Stage　1　must　precede　stages　2；　3；　4；　and　so　on。　

Third；　cohesiveness　of　a　stage　and　a　mon　conceptual　base　indicate　that　the　stage　itself　must　fit　
within　the　overall　theoretical　construct；　as　implied　by　the　underlying　concept