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diagnosed as senile dementia。 The cause of Alzheimer’s was unknown; but senile dementia was 
attributed to age。 As a result of the similarity of most cases of senile dementia to Alzheimer’s; it 
came to be known as senile dementia of the Alzheimer’s type。 In recent years; the distinction based 
on age of onset has gradually been dropped。 Presently; dementia is medically defined as a loss of 
mental petence with significant decline from the person’s former mental capability。 

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CHAPTER 11: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

Approximately 5% of people over 65 develop Alzheimer’s; with the incidence rising to about 20% in 
those past the age of 80。 It is a degenerative disorder; progressive in its destruction of functional 
abilities; is irreversible; and terminal。 At the present; there is no known cure; although some 
medication has been approved for its treatment。 Diminution and loss of short…term memory is 
generally the first indication of Alzheimer’s。 A set of questions designed to test the reality 
orientation of the individual includes such questions as “Where do you live?” and “What day of 
the week is it?” The individual’s responses are one aspect of making tentative diagnosis in the early 
stages of the disorder。 Arriving at a tentative diagnosis of Alzheimer’s also involves a process of 
elimination。 Organic brain disorders such as schizophrenia; tumors; and strokes must be ruled out 
as potential causes of the symptoms being displayed by the patient before hazarding a tentative 
diagnosis of Alzheimer’s。 

Following the initial loss of memory; deterioration of cognitive functioning is noted and; as the 
disease progresses; the individual gradually loses the ability to walk; to feed him… or herself; and to 
control the bladder and bowels。 In the terminal stage of the disease; the individual is reduced to a 
vegetative state; unaware of the presence of friends and family; the surrounding environment; and 
even his or her own identity。 Death usually occurs four to five years after onset; but the range is two 
to ten years。 

The cause of Alzheimer’s disease is not known。 The disease; or some form of it; may be genetically 
transmitted。 There are similarities between Alzheimer’s disease and Down syndrome。 Down 
syndrome is sometimes called Trisomy 21 to indicate the presence of three; rather than two; 
chromosomes at the 21st position。 A gene on the same chromosome has been tentatively linked to 
Alzheimer’s。 Other hypotheses about the causal agent for Alzheimer’s include a slow…acting virus 
and toxic substances such as aluminum。 Whatever the primary causal agent; its presence is 
believed to result in biochemical changes in the brain。 These changes have been posited to include 
reduction in the availability of one or more of the following substances: acetylcholine; a 
neurotransmitter; corticotropin…releasing factor; a hormone; and ribonucleic acid (RNA)。 Another 
change noted in brain tissue is the appearance of fibers in the cytoplasm of neurons。 Dr。 Alois 
Alzheimer called these fibers neurofibrillary tangles。 He also observed that some neurons appeared 
to have shriveled; with their dendrites deteriorating to the degree that the cell could no longer 
function; causing the neurons to collapse。 Alzheimer referred to sections of the brain where clusters 
of the collapsed neurons were found as neuritic plaques。 

In spite of scientific advances in knowledge about Alzheimer’s disease; for the patient and the 
patient’s family; the disease remains irreversible; incurable; and virtually untreatable。 Custodial 
care by a family member at home or in an institution is generally required as the disorder 
progresses; in order to prevent the patient from hurting him… or herself or wandering off and getting 
lost。 The nature of the disease is best described as regressive in that a once…petent adult loses 
the ability to think rationally; language deteriorates; temper tantrums like those of early childhood 
may occur; motor skills are lost; and finally; with loss of the ability to feed oneself and to control the 
bladder and bowels; the regression to an infant…like state is plete。 

Critical Periods: The Story of Genie 

In 1970; a 13…year…old girl was discovered in Los Angeles。 Her name was Genie; and the conditions 
in which she was found were appalling。 Genie had been treated like an animal since the age of 20 
months。 She was confined to a small; curtained room and spent most of her days strapped to a 
potty…chair; unable to move except for her hands and feet。 At night; Genie was confined in a cage…
like crib; and restrained in a straightjacket…type garment。 She had no bowel or bladder control; 
could not stand in an erect posture; was severely malnourished; and was unable to chew solid 
food。 Genie was also mute; she could not speak and could not understand language。 The only 
sounds she had ever heard were those made by her father on the occasions he beat her for crying or 
making noises。 Genie had been held prisoner by her father; a man who never spoke to her; and 

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would not allow anyone else to do so。 

Genie was removed from her father’s custody; and taken to Los Angeles Children’s Hospital; where 
she was nursed back to physical health。 She underwent psychological evaluation to determine her 
mental status and level of cognitive functioning; including her ability to produce and prehend 
language。 Following all necessary assessments; psychologists embarked on the task of teaching 
Genie language。 Because Genie was attempting to acquire language at age 13; her psychologists 
were presented with a unique opportunity to study the critical period theory relative to learning 
language; the notion that there is a time early in a child’s life when language learning must begin; if 
language is to be learned at all。 Genie was far past that proposed critical period。 Further; she knew 
no grammar and had virtually no language ability。 

The researchers working with Genie approached the task of teaching her language in much the 
same manner they would teach a younger child; by direct exposure to spoken language as a 
function of engagement in daily activities。 Initially; Genie would speak only one or two words at a 
time; but she did progress; up to a point。 Though she eventually progressed to the degree of 
bining two and three words into phrases; she never progressed beyond the level of a 3… or 4year…
old child in her language abilities; and never made the progression from simple words into 
grammatically correct sentences。 

The fact that Genie actually did acquire some facility for language denied support for the 
hypothesis that there is a critical period for language acquisition; and that this period falls 
somewhere between age 2 and puberty。 However; Genie’s failure to attain fluency and grammar did 
point to the potential for an optimal period for language acquisition; a period that; if missed; would 
result in failure ever to attain plete facility for language。 Unfortunately; no more specific 
information could be gained from Genie’s experiences; because her lack of facility for language 
could be attributable to her severely malnourished state; the emotional and physical abuse suffered 
at the hands of her father; and her social isolation; as much as to a potential optimal period for 
language acquisition。 

By age 24; Genie had received 11 years of special education and rehabilitation to include foster care; 
yet her language capability remained short of that expected in a 5…year…old child。 Did Genie miss 
her critical period for language acquisition? We do not know。 Her plight has offered many insights 
to developmental psychologists; but many final answers remain elusive。 

Craig; G。 J。; & Kermis; M。 D。 (1995)。 Children Today。 Englewood Cliffs; NJ: Prentice…Hall。 

Stage Theory: What Is a “Stage Theory?” 

As instructors; we are familiar with “stage” theories; as we spend a great deal of time studying 
them。 Freud’s stages of psychosexual development; Erikson’s eight stages of man; Kohlberg’s stages 
of moral development; and Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are part of our world; but what 
is implied to our students when we refer to a given theory as a “stage theory”? 

Reber (1985) defines stage theory as “a label applicable to any theory of development that 
characterizes growth; be it physical; sensory…motor; cognitive; moral; etc。; as a progression through 
a sequence of stages” (p。 724)。 He further states that stage theories tend to be either maturational or 
interactional in nature; that they are biologically determined or result from interactions between 
biological and experiential factors。 

Actually; even if we didn’t use the word “stage” in referring to many of our psychological theories; 
we would still be able to easily discern which theories are stage theories and which are not; because 
there are four properties that define stage theories。 Without any one of these properties; you do not 
have a stage theory。 These properties are: 

· A stage theory must predict qualitative differences in behavior; over both time and 
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experience 

。 A stage theory must assume invariance of the sequence of stages 
。 A stage theory assumes structural cohesiveness of a stage; the behaviors within a stage 
must share a mon conceptual base 
。 There must be a hierarchical integration of structures from stage to stage; so that later 
stages incorporate and expand on the structures from earlier stages 
Now; back to our question; what does the term stage theory imply and subsequently mean to our 
students? First; it means that a stage theory is presumed to be universal—which is what “over both 
time and experience means。 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development offers an easy example。 Piaget 
proposed that children; regardless of nationality; ethnicity; or sociocultural background; all 
experience their intellectual development in the same way。 The same sequence of events unfolds; 
regardless of where the child lives and under what conditions。 Further; Piaget proposed that the 
changes were not only predictable and universal; but that the changes were qualitatively different 
as the child moved from one stage to the next。 For example; a 7…year…old child can conserve liquid; 
but a 4…year…old cannot。 That is a qualitative difference in the thought process; and it is a function of 
the developmental process。 

Second; stage theories and stage theorists believe that there can be no latitude in the progression of 
the stages of development。 In Eriksonian terms; a child must resolve the trust/mistrust conflict and 
learn to trust before he or she can move onto the stage of autonomy versus self…doubt; because 
unless the trust/mistrust conflict has been resolved; the child has no possibility of resolving the 
autonomy issue。 Stage 1 must precede stages 2; 3; 4; and so on。 

Third; cohesiveness of a stage and a mon conceptual base indicate that the stage itself must fit 
within the overall theoretical construct; as implied by the underlying concept

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