心理学与生活-第57章

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Third；　cohesiveness　of　a　stage　and　a　mon　conceptual　base　indicate　that　the　stage　itself　must　fit　
within　the　overall　theoretical　construct；　as　implied　by　the　underlying　conceptual　basis　of　the　
theoretical　position。　Finally；　stage　theories　represent　a　series　of　building　blocks；　in　that　one　builds　
on　the　other　in　a　hierarchical　fashion。　Each　stage　must　progress　logically　from　the　one　preceding　it；　
and　lead　logically　to　the　one　following。　If　a　given　theory　satisfies　these　four　requirements；　we　can　
properly　refer　to　it　as　a　stage　theory。　

Identity　and　the　Tasks　of　Adolescence　

Sometimes　a　concept　from　academic　research　or　theory　catches　the　attention　of　the　public　and　
bees　integrated　into　the　framework　of　society’s　“general　knowledge。”　Perhaps　this　occurs　
because　the　concept　is　relevant　at　the　time；　or　because　it　provides　a　framework　for　a　generally　
recognized　problem　or　issue。　The　“identity　crisis”　proposed　by　Erik　Erikson　is　such　a　concept；　and　
was　eagerly　adopted　by　American　society　in　the　1960s。　At　that　time；　the　baby…boom　cohort　was　
reaching　adolescence。　The　Vietnam　War　loomed　as　a　threat　to　youth。　Civil　rights　activists　
challenged　the　thoughtless　discrimination　of　older　generations；　and　the　women’s　liberation　
movement　contested　traditional　ideas　of　female　identity。　Also；　by　the　1960s；　adolescence　had　
bee　established　as　a　life　stage　created　by　technological　society；　giving　status　to　a　span　of　years　
between　childhood　and　full　adult　status　during　which　the　young　person　prepared　to　live　and　work　
in　an　increasingly　plex　society。　

Erikson　saw　adolescence　as　a　pivotal　stage　of　development　in　which　earlier　psychosocial　conflicts　
return　in　a　new　form；　and　in　which　the　foundations　are　laid　for　the　intimacy；　generativity；　and　
wisdom　that　are　the　favorable　outes　of　later　stages。　Developmental　psychologists　sometimes　
organize　discussion　of　life　stage　around　the　developmental　tasks　of　the　stage；　those　things　we　must　
do　to　be　ready　to　move　on　to　the　next　stage。　The　elements　of　the　identity　crisis　can　be　considered　
“tasks　of　adolescence。”　

Acquiring　Temporal　Perspective　

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One　aspect　of　temporal　perspective　is　to　have　a　clear　conception　of　past　and　future；　and　to　have　the　
confidence　to　plan。　Another　aspect　of　temporal　perspective　is　the　ability　to　regulate　one’s　own　time。　
Freshman　entering　the　university　environment　and　who　are　living　away　from　home　for　the　first　time　
often　have　difficulty　regulating　their　own　time。　With　no　parent　present　to　say　“go　to　bed；”　they　will　
solve　the　world’s　problems　all　night　and　be　unable　to　get　up　for　class　the　next　morning。　There　are　
people　in　middle　age　who　lose　jobs；　miss　airplanes；　and　alienate　friends　because　of　their　lack　of　
ability　to　regulate　their　time。　

Acquiring　Self…Certainty　

Self…certainty　is　equivalent　to　what　is　also　referred　to　as　self…confidence　or　self…esteem。　Erikson　
thought　that　efforts　to　begin　to　“sever　the　apron　strings”　and　to　bee　an　autonomous　or　
independent　person　begin　early　in　life；　about　the　time　we　begin　to　walk。　If　the　child　sees　herself　
being　able　to　do　for　herself　and　acplish　little　things　independently；　then　she　has　the　basis　to　
develop　confidence　in　herself。　In　adolescence；　there　are　new　threats　to　self…confidence；　such　as　the　
prospect　of　having　to　be　financially　independent　and　to　find　a　desirable　partner。　Another　aspect　of　
self…certainty　is　that　it　must　be　acpanied　by　a　self…image　that　is　patible　with　reality。　Self…
esteem　that　is　unrealistic　is　a　defense；　a　fantasy　that　prevents　self…fulfillment。　

Role　Experimentation　

During　childhood；　we　usually　look　to　parents　or　teacher　for　role　models。　In　adolescence；　young　
people　are　likely　to　reject　earlier　models　and　to　go　through　a　series　of　“trying　on”　different　roles。　The　
movies　and　television　provide　a　smorgasbord　of　roles　and　role　models。　Role　models　can　be　real　
people；　characters　from　fiction；　historical　personages；　or　creations　of　our　own　imagination。　Erikson　
thought　that　role　experimentation　is　a　healthy　manifestation　of　the　search　for　identity；　but　at　some　
time　we　have　to　take　the　pieces　we　like　from　our　role　experimentation　and　put　them　together　into　a　
consistent　identity。　The　opposite　of　role　experimentation　is　role　fixation。　Sometimes　one　encounters　
a　young　person　who　has　had　an　identity　laid　on　him　so　heavily　by　parents　that　attempts　at　role　
experimentation　produce　too　much　guilt　to　be　pursued。　

Apprenticeship　

Theorists　are　often　reluctant　to　talk　about　anything　as　mundane　as　a　getting　a　job　and　earning　a　
living；　but　Erikson　recognized　that　the　prospect　of　having　to　be　self…supporting　is　a　real　concern　of　
adolescents。　This　does　not　mean　that　an　adolescent　has　to　choose　his　or　her　life’s　work　in　junior　
high　school；　but　it　does　mean　making　general　preparation　for　independence。　The　university　student　
may　not　have　chosen　a　career　or　even　have　decided　on　a　major；　but　the　fact　that　he　or　she　is　in　a　
college　class　suggests　that　the　individual　does　not　suffer　from　what　Erikson　called　“work　
paralysis。”　

Sexual　Polarization　

The　obvious　meaning　of　this　aspect　of　identity　is　that　adolescents　must　e　to　grips　with　whether　
they　are　heterosexual；　bisexual；　or　homosexual。　It　must　be　difficult　for　the　young　person　who　has　a　
homosexual　orientation　to　establish　a　positive　identity　during　adolescence。　There　are　great　
pressures　for　denial　and　for　conformity　to　sexual　roles　that　parents　and　most　peers　consider　
“normal。”　Erikson　wrote　about　the　aspect　of　sexual　polarization　that　can　be　described　as　“fort　
and　confidence　in　the　role　of　male　or　female。”　In　early　adolescence；　young　people　often　feel　sexually　
inadequate　because　their　bodies　are　less　than　perfect；　or　because　they　feel　inferior　to　peers　who　tell　
tall　tales　of　sexual　adventures　and　prowess。　Sexual　roles　are　not　as　clearly　delineated　as　they　
formerly　were；　particularly　in　the　case　of　the　female　role；　and　young　females　may　feel　less　than　
feminine　if　they　have　ambitious　career　aspirations　and　inadequate　as　humans　if　they　don’t。　

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Questions　of　Authority：　Being　a　Leader　and　a　Follower　

Resentment　of　authority　is　so　mon　among　American　adolescents　that　it　is　tempting　to　think　of　it　
as　normal。　Differentiating　between　legitimate　authority　and　arbitrary　authority　is　a　task　of　identity　
establishment。　Identity　formation　includes　being　able　to　take　the　role　of　leader　or　follower　in　the　
appropriate　circumstances。　

Ideological　mitment　

As　the　identity　is　formed；　young　people　must　select　a　basic　philosophy；　a　set　of　values；　and　an　
orientation　toward　religion　and　politics。　Excessive　zeal　for　a　cause；　dramatic　religious　conversion；　
and　allegiance　to　a　cult　are　some　of　the　extreme　symptoms　of　young　people　searching　for　something　
to　believe　in。　The　task　the　adolescent　faces　is　to　adopt　an　ideology　that　is　internally　consistent　and　
patible　with　the　self　and　the　self…image。　

It　may　seem　as　though　identity　formation　requires　that　one　lay　down　plans　for　the　remainder　of　
one’s　life　and　adopt　beliefs　that　will　guide　one’s　behavior　for　all　time。　Of　course；　this　is　not　the　
situation。　Identity　formation　is　bringing　together　various　aspects　of　the　self　into　a　coherent　whole　
and　establishing　a　psychic　“core”　that　defines　the　self。　It　is　probably　not　a　coincidence　that　
Erikson’s　identity　crisis　begins　concurrently　with　Piaget’s　stage　of　formal　operations。　Some　of　the　
cognitive　skills　of　the　mature　intellect　represented　by　this　stage　of　cognitive　development　are　
instrumental　in　bringing　together　the　threads　of　the　self。　

Myths　about　Aging　

Aging　is　one　of　the　mysteries　of　human　life　that　has　been　a　focus　of　science　for　a　number　of　years。　
Researchers　divide　aging　into　two　categories：　primary　aging　and　secondary　aging。　Secondary　aging　
is　change　that　occurs　as　a　result　of　disease；　stress；　poor　diet；　lack　of　exercise；　or　exposure　to　toxic　
substances…any　factor　that　contributes　to　aging　that　is　actually　or　potentially　preventable。　What　is　
left　is　primary　aging。　If　genes　were　programmed　to　effect　changes　with　age；　that　would　be　primary　
aging。　

As　research　progresses；　many　of　the　myths；　misconceptions；　and　stereotypes　associated　with　aging　
are　being　shattered；　more　of　what　was　thought　to　be　primary　aging　is；　in　fact；　secondary　aging。　For　
example；　research　done　in　the　1950s　and　1960s　by　highly　regarded　psychologists　showed　that　IQ　
scores　reach　a　peak　in　the　twenties；　remain　stable　until　40；　decrease　slowly　from　40　to　60；　and　
decline　very　rapidly　after　the　age　of　60。　The　idea　of　deterioration　of　cognitive　functions　with　age　
seemed　to　be　established；　but　more　recent　research　using　longitudinal　data　has　challenged　the　
earlier　studies。　Recent　research　has　shown　that　significant　changes　in　cognitive　functions　do　not　
begin　until　the　mid…70s；　and　even　then　intellectual　capacities　remain　intact　for　people　who　continue　
to　exercise　them　and　remain　in　good　health。　In　studies　with　rats；　Marian　Diamond　has　shown　that　
rats　who　live　in　an　enriched　environment　continue　to　show　thickening　of　the　cortex　when　they　are　
beyond　the　normal　life　span　of　rats。　

One　of　the　myths　of　aging　is　that　people　undergo　personality　changes　as　they　grow　older。　
Longitudinal　data　have　been　collected　on　a　large　group　of　volunteers　for　30　years　by　the　
Gerontological　Research　Center　for　the　National　Institute　on　Aging。　The　data　show　stability　of　
personality　from　young　adulthood　through　old　age。　The　director　of　the　research　noted　that　a　person　
who　is　warm；　sociable；　and　outgoing　at　20　is　likely　to　be　warm；　sociable；　and　outgoing　at　80。　He　

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also　observed　that　if　you　are　likely　to　plain　about　physical　symptoms　when　you　are　80；　you　
were　probably　a　plainer　when　you　were　20。　

Based　on　research　in　the　1950s；　it　was　concluded　that　there　is　an　age…related　decrease　in　cardiac　
output；　the　amount　of　blood　the　heart　pumps　per　unit　of　time。　Thirty　years　later；　using　the　same　
treadmill　test；　the　results　were　different。　Many　of　the　older　participants　showed　no　decrease　in　
cardiac　output；　and　among　those　who　showed　a　decrease；　the　problem　was　associated　with　lack　of　
exercise。　During　the　30　years；　a　great　deal　was　learned　about　heart　disease。　Many　of　the　
participants　in　the　earlier　study　were　not　the　healthy…hearted　specimens　they　were　believed　to　be。　
The　conclusions　from　the　recent　research　are　that　decrease　in　cardiac　output　is　probably　secondary　
aging；　and　not　an　inevitable　consequence　of　growing　older。　

Growing　old　is　something　we　do　not　like　to　think　about。　When　you　consider　the　alternative；　
growing　old　is　not　bad。　Many　young　people　do　not　like　to　face　the　fact　that　habits　and　lifestyles　they　
adopt　today　are　likely　to　have　a　profound　effect　at　the　other　end　of　life。　Some　young　people　say　they　
don’t　want　to　live　that　long；　but　there　is　never　a　good　day　to　die；　and　most　young　people　of　today　
are　likely　to　grow　old；　to　live　to　be　at　least　75　or　80。　When　you　get　there；　you　may　not　consider　
yourself　old；　like　the　83…years…old　woman　that　refused　to　shop　in　a　certain　s