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心理学与生活-第61章

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4。 To assign responsibility for actions 
5。 To explain perseverance despite adversity 
C。 Sources of Motivation 
1。 Drives and Incentives 
a) Drive is defined in biological terms as energy released from an 
organism’s store; the fuel of action 
b) Drive Theory was fully developed by Hull; who believed 

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Motivation was necessary for learning to occur 

(i) Learning is essential for successful adaptation to the 
environment 
(ii) Tension reduction is reinforcing; but is not sufficient to 
explain all types of motivated behavior 
(iii) Organisms seek to maintain homeostasis; a state of 
equilibrium 
c) Behavior can also be motivated by incentives; external stimuli 
or rewards that do not relate directly to biological needs 

2。 Reversal Theory 
a) Apter’s reversal theory hypothesizes four pairs of 
metamotivational states; states that give rise to distinct 
patterns of motivation 

(i) Telic–Paratelic: serious vs。 playful 
(ii) Conformist–Negativistic: pliant vs。 rebellious 
(iii) Mastery–Sympathy: power…oriented vs。 care…oriented 
(iv) Autic–Alloic: concern for self vs。 concern for others 
b) Seeks to explain motivation in terms of reversals from one 
state to another 

3。 Instinctual Behaviors and Learning 
a) Instincts are preprogrammed tendencies that are essential for 
the survival of their species 

b) To what degree is human behavior instinctual? 

(i) James (1890) proposed humans are more reliant on 
instinct than other animals; stating both human and 
animal behaviors are purposive; serving important 
purposes in the organism’s adaptation to its 
environment 
(ii) Freud (1915) proposed that humans experience drive 
states arise from life and death instincts; calling the 
drive state psychic energy 
(iii) Behaviorist data indicating behaviors and emotions 
are learned rather than instinctive in nature helped to 
found instinct theory as an explanation for motivated 
behavior 
4。 Expectations and Cognitive Approaches to Motivation 
a) An expectation is an idea about the future likelihood of getting 
something that is wanted 

b) Significant human motivation derives from the individual’s 
subjective interpretation of reality 

c) Social…learning theory developed the importance of 
expectations in motivating behavior。 The probability of 
engaging in a given behavior is determined by: 

(i) Expectation of attaining a goal that follows the 
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activity 

(ii) Personal value of that goal to the individual 
(iii) A discrepancy between expectations and reality can 
motivate the individual to perform corrective 
behaviors 
d) Heider posited that behavioral oute can be attributed to: 

(i) Dispositional forces; such as lack of effort or low 
intelligence 
(ii) Situational forces; such as a biased exam or instructor 
(iii) Attributions influencing the way the individual will 
behave 
II。Eating 
A。 The Physiology of Eating 
1。 Regulation of effective food intake requires organisms to be equipped 
with mechanisms that acplish four tasks 
a) Detect internal food need 

b) Initiate and organize eating behavior 

c) Monitor quantity and quality of food eaten 

d) Detect when sufficient food has been eaten and stop eating 

2。 Peripheral Responses 
a) Cannon (1934) proposed gastric activity in an empty stomach 
was the sole basis for hunger; an unsupported position on 
discovery that stomach contractions are not a necessary 
condition for hunger 

b) Research shows gastric distension caused by ingestion of 
food causes the individual to stop eating 

3。 Central Responses 
a) Early theories about brain centers for initiation and cessation 
of eating were built around observations of the lateral 
hypothalamus and the ventromedial hypothalunus; leading 
to the dual…center model of response 

b) Dual…center model discredited after learning that the two 
basic signals that initiate eating e from receptors 
monitoring levels of sugar and fat in the blood 

B。 The Psychology of Eating 
1。 Psychological focus is on circumstances in which people try to 
exercise control over the consequences of eating 
2。 Obesity and Dieting 
a) Resting metabolic rate is the rate at which an individual’s 
body bums calories that maintain basic functions 

b) Biological predisposition may or may not “cause” an 

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CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION 

individual to bee obese 

c) Key is how individual thinks about food and eating behaviors 

d) Herman and Polivy propose the dimension underlying the 
psychology of eating behaviors to be restrained vs。 
unrestrained eating 

(i) Restrained eaters put constant limits on amount of 
food they will let themselves consume 
(ii) Restrained eaters gain weight even when dieting; 
because they bee periodically disinhibited and 
indulge in high…calorie bingeing 
(iii) Psychological consequences of constant dieting can 
create circumstances more likely to lead to weight 
gain than to weight loss 
3。 Eating Disorders and Body Image 
a) Anorexia nervosa: Individual weighs less than 85% of expected 
weight; but continues to express fear of being fat。 These 
individuals may also be bulimic 

b) Bulimia nervosa: Characterized by periods of intense; out…ofcontrol 
eating; or bingeing; followed by efforts to purge the 
body of excess calories through: 

(i) Self…induced vomiting 
(ii) Misuse of laxatives 
(iii) Fasting 
c) Both disorders result in systematic starvation of the body that 
may have serious medical consequences 

d) Prevalence of anorexia nervosa in late…adolescent and young 
adult females is about 0。5 to 1。0 percent 

e) Prevalence of bulimia nervosa during late…adolescent and 
young adult females is about 1。0 to 3。0 percent 

f) Females suffer eating disorders at approximately 10 times the 
rate of males 

III。 Sexual Behaviors 
A。 Nonhuman Sexual Behaviors 
1。 Nonhuman sexual behaviors have reproduction as their primary 
motivation 
2。 Sexual arousal is primarily physiologically determined by 
a) Secretion of hormones 

b) Stereotypical sexual behaviors for all members of a given 
species 

c) Arousal may be initiated by environmental stimuli (e。g。; 
ritualized behavior by potential partners may be a necessary 
condition for sexual response) 

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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

d) Chemical signals; pheromones; are secreted by some species to 
attract suitors 

B。 Human Sexual Arousal and Response 
1。 Hormonal activity has no known effect on sexual receptivity or 
gratification in most men and women 
2。 Sexual Arousal is the motivational state of excitement and tension 
brought about by physiological and cognitive reactions to erotic 
stimuli 
a) Erotic stimuli; which may be physiological or psychological; 
give rise to sexual excitement or feelings of passion 

3。 Research by Masters and Johnson provided four basic conclusions 
regarding human sexuality 
a) Men and women have similar patterns of sexual response 

b) Although the sequence of phases of the sexual response cycle 
is similar in the two sexes; women are more variable; tending 
to respond more slowly but often remaining aroused longer 

c) Many women can have multiple orgasms; while men rarely 
do so in a parable time period 

d) Penis size is generally unrelated to any aspect of sexual 
performance (other than the attitude of the male regarding 
having a large penis) 

4。 Phases of the sexual response cycle; according to Masters and 
Johnson: 
a) Excitement: Vascular changes in pelvic region; including 
erection of penis and clitoral swelling; sexual flush appears 

b) Plateau: Maximum level of arousal is reached; with increased 
heart rate; respiration; and blood pressure; vaginal 
lubrications increase and breasts swell 

c) Orgasm: Intense; pleasurable release from sexual tension; very 
high respiration rate and blood pressure; and heart rate may 
double 

d) Resolution: Body returns gradually to normal; pre…excitement 
state。 Most males enter a refractory period during which no 
further orgasm is possible。 With sustained arousal; females 
are capable of multiple orgasms in rapid succession 

C。 The Evolution of Sexual Behaviors 
1。 Evolution may have led men and women to different strategies that 
underlie their sexual behavior 
a) Male role tends toward short…term mating; giving signs of 
loyalty and mitment followed by leaving the female 

b) Female role is more inclined to long…term mating; attraction of a 
loyal male who will remain with her; helping to raise her 

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CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION 

children 

D。 Sexual Norms 
1。 Sexual norms are culturally acquired behaviors that are considered to 
be appropriate for expression of sexual impulses 
2。 Sexual scripts are socially learned programs of sexual responsiveness 
that include prescriptions (usually unspoken) of 
a) What to do 

b) When; where; and how to do it 

c) With whom or with what to do it 

d) Why it should be done 

3。 Sexual scripts include not only expectations of appropriate behavior 
for ourselves; but also expectations of appropriate behavior for our 
partner(s) 
4。 Date Rape 
a) Research with college students indicates date rape is an area 
of devastating conflict between sexual scripts of males and 
females 

(i) Research indicates that for both genders; unwanted 
sex was related to perceiving male…female 
relationships as adversarial 
(ii) Specific correlation was the male script that females 
will offer token resistance to avoid appearing 
promiscuous 
E。 Homosexuality 
1。 Homosexuality should not be considered a deviation from 
heterosexuality but like all sexual behavior; involves a bination of 
both internal and external motivational forces; including the 
excitement and tension brought about by physiological and cognitive 
reactions to erotic stimuli 
2。 Homosexuality is set apart from heterosexuality by the continuing 
hostility toward homosexual behaviors from many areas of society 
3。 Many gay men and lesbians suffer internalized homophobia or 
internalized homo…negativity as a result of societal hostility 
4。 Much anxiety attached to homosexuality is a function of the 
individual’s need to reveal or conceal his/her homosexuality from 
family; friends; and co…workers; rather than being a function of 
actually being homosexual 
5。 Data suggest much of the stress associated with homosexuality is not 
from the sexual motivation itself; but from the ways in which people 
respond to the revelation of that sexual motivation 
IV。 Motivation for Personal Achievement 
A。 Need for Achievement 
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1。 Murray postulated a need for achievement (n Ach) as a variable that 
fluctuated in strength in different people; and influenced their 
tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances 
2。 McClelland used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to measure 
strength of n Ach 
3。 n Ach reflected individual differences in the importance of planning 
and working toward attainment of one’s goals 
a) High scores on n Ach reflected upward mobility 

b) High n Ach individuals typified by a need for efficiency 

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