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心理学与生活-第63章

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You might have your class discuss other products such as pain relievers; colas; and clothes。 Have 
your class use their critical thinking skills to figure out the advertiser’s motivation the next time that 
they see an advertisement。 They might want to ask themselves: 

。 Am I a member of the target audience? 
。 Is the product really special and different; or just trying to be? 
。 What claims does the advertisement make of the product? How are the claims
substantiated?
。 If statistics are used; are they used fairly? 
。 If the product is pared to another; is it pared to a relevant product in a reasonable 
way? 
。 What are the nonverbal messages that the advertisement tries to impart? 
。 How were the municators chosen to maximize impact and believability? 
。 What need does the product fill? Is the need real; or created by the advertisement? 
Finally; advertising is not all bad。 If it was; it might not be allowed。 Ask your class why 
advertisements are legal; although their only purpose is to influence people to do things that they 
might not do without advertisements。 One positive aspect of advertisements is their informational 
value。 They alert consumers to the presence of new products; and to legitimate differences among 

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exiting products。 Are there others? In closing; remember what the Romans said; “Caveat emptor!” 
(Let the buyer beware)。 

Psychological Factors and Obesity 

While genetic and metabolic factors clearly influence many cases of obesity; personal; social; 
cultural; and environmental factors also play a distinct role。 As the text states; the number of people 
you are with can affect how much you eat。 Also; we may eat more in certain social situations where 
eating is expected。 Low self…esteem; having been sexually abused; and high levels of depressive 
anxiety are correlated with obesity。 Family and cultural norms may also play a part。 Some cultures 
perceive what we consider obesity to be attractive。 In our culture; we idolize health and thinness; 
but we have slipped into lifestyles in which so many Americans have access to fat…rich foods and 
are physically inactive; that large numbers of Americans are obese and dieting has bee the 
norm for a majority of American women。 Many younger women also develop eating disorders such 
as bulimia and anorexia; largely in response to trying to achieve unrealistic standards of thinness。 
This can be a useful topic to discuss with the class; because many college students are in the 
highest…risk group for developing these disorders。 They are also at an age where they are beginning 
to develop lifestyle norms that can have long…term implications for their risk for obesity。 

Extrinsic Rewards May Spoil Pleasure 

The following tale is useful as a lead…in to a discussion of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards: 

An Italian shoemaker in New York became the target of epithets shouted gleefully by boys in 
the neighborhood。 “Dirty wop!” “Greaseball; go back to Sicily!” And other obscenities not fit 
for print。 The boys were a general nuisance and disrupted business。 The shoemaker ignored the 
boys in vain。 He tried to reason with them; and he tried to chase them away; all to no avail。 One 
day when he saw them approaching; the shoemaker tried a new approach。 “Don’t ask me 
why;” said the shoemaker to the boys; “but I will give each one of you 50 cents if you will shout; 
“Dirty wop! No greaseballs in our neighborhood!” as loud as you can。” The boys were 
delighted and enthusiastically shouted the phrases at the top of their lungs。 

The next day; right after school; the boys reappeared; expecting more of the same。 The 
shoemaker met them with a smile and said; “You did such a wonderful job yesterday; I will 
gladly pay 50 cents to each of you that shouts the same things that you did yesterday; and 
makes up one new one。” Again; the boys plied; screaming at the top of their lungs until 
they were hoarse。 

The boys appeared the third day; and again the shoemaker met them with a smile。 
Nevertheless; today he was apologetic。 “I am sorry;” he said; “but business has been slow。 You 
put on a marvelous show yesterday; but all that I can afford today is a nickel。” The boys obliged 
by shouting the epithets with somewhat less enthusiasm than they had the day before。 

On the fourth day; the boys appeared right on schedule。 Again; the shoemaker met them 
apologetically。 “The show that you put on yesterday was indeed worth it; but business is so 
bad that I can not afford to pay you today。” At this point; so the story goes; the boys grumbled 
that they had better things to do than entertain a dumb Italian; and wandered off; never to be 
seen again。 Why did this approach at changing the boys’ behavior work when none other had? 
It worked because it changed what had been an intrinsically rewarding activity into an activity 
that was done for an extrinsic monetary reward。 Then; when the extrinsic reward was removed; 
the boys no longer had intrinsic or extrinsic motivation to engage in the problem behavior。 In 
simple terms; the fun was taken out of it。 

Psychologist Mark Lepper offers the following conclusions about the research and theory on the 

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effects of reward on subsequent motivation: 

。 Punishment is usually thought to create pliant behavior change without 
internalization of the underlying attitudes; values; morality; or principles。 Reward has 
been assumed to enhance likelihood that the desired behavior change will be internalized。 
。 Festinger’s dissonance theory clearly distinguishes between public pliance and private 
acceptance in terms of the person’s perception of the external versus internal locus of 
pressure to behave in the given way。 Private acceptance (internalized behavior change) 
involves the actor believing he or she had sufficient freedom of decision to refuse to do a 
behavior and that the decision was not overdetermined by threats; incentives; or someone 
else’s justification。 
。 When extrinsic rewards are imposed on an activity that was formerly freely chosen because 
of its intrinsic value to the child; subsequent motivation to engage in that activity is 
reduced。 This is true for task…contingent rewards。 
。 Performance…contingent rewards do not necessarily undermine intrinsic motivation as 
task…contingent rewards do。 
。 The greatest loss of intrinsic motivation es when the pupil perceives his or her task 
behavior to be under surveillance and extrinsically rewarded。 
Basis of Motivation and Its Theoretical Perspectives 

Motivation is defined as the concept we use when describing the forces acting on or within an 
organism to initiate and direct behavior。 We also use the concept to explain differences in intensity 
of behavior and to indicate the direction of behavior。 Increased intensity of behaviors is thought to 
result from increased levels of motivation。 For example; when we are hungry; we direct our energies 
to obtaining food。 

We study motivation because both casual and scientific observation tell us that behavior is often 
triggered by something。 Something motivates us to behave in a certain way。 Motivation includes 
certain characteristics; such as activation; persistence; and vigor: 

Activation 

Although motivation is often viewed as being behaviorally activating; the resulting behavior 
activated may not always be overt and observable。 For example; a rabbit freezes when a hawk flies 
overhead。 The rabbit’s motivation for survival results in an “activity” of immobilization; although 
the rabbit’s heart rate is high because of the activation of its peripheral nervous system。 Therefore; 
motivation is not necessarily overt; physically observable activation。 It may be; but it also may not 
be。 

Persistence 

Persistence appears to be one of several possible indices of motivation。 That is; the level of 
persistence appears to be an indicator of the level of motivation。 If your cat is just a little hungry; or 
maybe just bored; it may follow you to the kitchen and meow around its bowl in a half…hearted 
attempt to be fed。 If your cat is starving; however; it may meow vociferously while pacing back and 
forth near the kitchen door。 It may try to get your attention by sinking its claws deep into your leg or 
by licking your face。 If you still refuse to feed it; your cat may rummage for food on its own; 
knocking jars over; opening cabinets; and eating through wrappers。 

Vigor 

The intensity of the response may be associated with motivation level; but it may also be a learned 
factor。 For example; if a rat learned that it had to really bang on a lever to get the food pellet to fall 

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because the lever had a stiff spring; the rat will bang the stuffing out of any other response level that 
you put in its path。 If you are a casual observer; you might assume the rat is highly motivated due to 
the vigor with which it bangs the lever when; in fact; that is the only way he knows how to press a 
lever。 It is what it has learned to do。 

As with most issues in psychology; there are various approaches to studying motivation; three of 
which are the biological; the drive or learning; and the cognitive。 Let us look at each of them。 

The Biological Approach 

The biological approach espouses naturally occurring behavior and evolution。 Part of this 
perspective is instinct theory。 Instinct theory; as an explanation for motivated behavior; reached its 
peak in the United States in the late 1800s and early 1900s。 As the popularity of this theory grew; it 
tried to “explain” all behaviors as “instinctive”; which led to the nominal fallacy。 

For example; if you saw me playing with a three…year…old; you might explain my playfulness; my 
behavior; in terms of a “paternal instinct。” However; by labeling my behavior as “paternal”; you 
have done nothing but name it。 You have explained nothing。 Simply naming something as an 
instinct does not explain it。 In order to explain behavior; you cannot just label it; you must 
understand the conditions that led to the behavior and the consequences that result from it。 
Explanation presumes a cause…and…effect relationship and labeling a behavior provides no causal 
explanation。 

Early instinct approaches emphasized the continuity of human and animal behavior and were 
important because they provided a foundation on which later ethological theories; motivated 
behavior theories; could build。 Ethological theories were based on Darwin’s theory of evolution and 
were concerned with the evolution; development; and function of behavior。 

Drive Theories 

The concept of drive assumed that the motivation of behavior depends on a physiological need; 
such as hunger; thirst; or sex。 This perspective posits that the organism bees motivated to 
reduce the need or drive in any way that it can。 As a motivational construct; drive is usually 
associated with maintenance of homeostasis; a process in which bodily mechanisms attempt to 
keep the body’s systems functioning at their optimal levels。 

One significant theory in this grouping was propose

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