心理学与生活-第64章

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keep　the　body’s　systems　functioning　at　their　optimal　levels。　

One　significant　theory　in　this　grouping　was　proposed　by　Clark　Hull　（1943）。　Hull’s　theory　was　
motivated　by　both　learning　theory　and　motivational　thought；　and　his　model　for　behavior　was　one　of　
survival。　Hull　assumed　that　motivation　developed　to　meet　the　organic　needs　of　the　organism；　
because　such　a　system　gives　the　animal　an　advantage　in　the　struggle　to　survive。　This　is　based　on　
the　various　theories　of　evolution。　Hull　proposed　that　behavior　resulted　from　three　factors：　

。　What　has　been　learned　
。　The　current　level　of　drive　
。　The　characteristics　of　the　goal　
Cognitive　Theories　

This　group　of　theories　involves　an　expectancy…value　construct。　Edward　Tolman　（1934）　proposed　
that　theories　of　behavior　should　be　studied　as　a　whole；　proposing　that　behavior　is　molar；　rather　
than　studying　it　as　a　function　of　its　ponent　parts　（as　in　a　reductionist　model）。　Tolman　posited　
three　defining　properties　for　molar　behavior。　

1。　Behavior　is　always　directed　toward　or　away　from　some　specific　goal；　behavior　that　is　
directed　toward　a　goal　is　persistent。　
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2。　Behaviors　leading　toward　a　goal　form　a　consistent　pattern　of　responses。　Behavior　is　not　
random；　but　represents　the　way　in　which　the　organism　attempts　to　reach　the　goal。　
3。　There　is　selectivity　to　molar　behavior。　The　shortest　or　easiest　path　to　the　goal　will　be　taken。　
These　three　characteristics　imply　that　the　organism　has　some　understanding　of　the　goal　toward　
which　its　behavior　is　leading。　In　a　word；　Tolman　saw　behavior　as　being　“purposive。”　Further；　he　
posited　cognitive　expectancy；　suggesting　that　organisms　learn　that　particular　behaviors　lead　to　
particular　goals。　Organisms　develop　an　expectancy　that　a　specific　set　of　behaviors　will　lead　to　a　
specific　goal。　

Achievement　and　Motivation　

What　is　achievement？　A　passable　working　definition　is　the　development　of　motives；　capabilities；　
interests；　and　behaviors　that　have　to　do　with　performance　in　evaluative　situations。　How　does　that　
pertain　to　the　average　child　or　adolescent　in　a　realistic　format？　Achievement　is　an　important　
concept　for　all　of　us　relative　to　issues　such　as：　

。　Grades　during　our　school　years　
。　Scores　on　college　entrance　exams　
。　Ability　to　pass　a　football　or　hit　a　softball　
。　Engaging　in　appropriate　social　behavior　（to　be　popular）　
These　are　all　examples　of　achievements；　but　where　or　how　does　achievement　bee　relevant　to　us？　
First；　it　is　important　for　all　of　us　in　terms　of　the　need　for　achievement　（n　Ach）；　the　degree　to　which　
the　individual　strives　for　success。　The　Need　for　Achievement　is　based　on　expectancy　theory。　
McClelland　explained　achievement　motivation　as　the　need　to　perform　the　difficult　as　well　and　as　
quickly　as　possible。　In　1983；　Spence　and　Helmreich　identified　three　factors　as　contributing　to　
achievement　tendencies：　work；　mastery；　and　petition。　Spence　and　Helmreich　found　that　females　
scored　higher　on　work　and　males　scored　higher　on　both　mastery　and　petition。　Have　your　class　
try　to　determine　why。　One　reason　is　that　they　were　well　socialized　into　traditional　gender　roles。　

Do　males　and　females　have　any　tendency　to　adhere　to　specific　patterns　of　motivation？　Research　by　
Dweck　（1986）　found　the　girls’　pattern　of　motivation　differed　from　that　of　boys　and　that　very　bright　
females　showed　greater　debilitation　after　failure；　that　is；　they　displayed　greater　decrements　in　
motivation　and　performance　than　did　other　females　or　any　males。　Conversely；　the　brightest　males　
showed　facilitation　following　failure。　Dweck　posits　that　lower　math　achievement　for　females　may　
be　at　least　partially　attributable　to　this　difference　in　motivational　patterns　because　sex/gender　
differences　in　both　math　and　motivation　are　greatest　among　the　brightest　students。　Dweck　also　
found　that　females　show　a　lower　preference　for　novel　or　challenging　tasks　than　do　males　and　that　
females　are　more　likely　to　attribute　their　failure　to　lack　of　ability　than　are　males。　

In　addition　to　the　determinants　of　achievement　behavior　already　mentioned；　let　us　look　at　the　
cognitive　determinants　of　this　construct。　Two　factors　that　strongly　impact　what　an　individual　is　
likely　to　achieve　are　the：　

。　Value　placed　on　achievement　of　the　goal。　An　individual’s　willingness　to　set　high　standards　
and　work　to　attain　them　will　fluctuate　in　accordance　with　how　valuable　the　achievement　is　
to　them　personally。　Obviously；　value　then　bees　a　significant　predictor　of　achievement　
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behavior。　

·　Expectation　of　achieving　the　goal。　When　dealing　with　children　and　adolescents；　those　who　
expect　to　succeed　usually　do　and　those　who　do　not　expect　to　succeed　usually　do　not。　
Attributional　Theories　of　Achievement　

Rotter’s　（1954）　locus…of…control　model　was　expanded　by　Virginia　Crandall　（1967）　as　follows。　
Individuals　with　an　internal　locus　of　control　（internalizers）　assume　that　they　are　personally　
responsible　for　their　success　or　failures。　Individuals　with　external　locus　of　control　（externalizers）　

believe　their　success…to…failure　rates　depend　on　luck　or　fate；　rather　than　on　their　own　effort　or　ability。　
Crandall　feels　that　an　internal　locus　of　control　is　conducive　to　achievement。　Individuals　must　
believe　that　their　efforts　will　lead　to　positive　outes　if　they　are　to　work　for　success　and　bee　
high　achievers。　Work　by　Findley　and　Cooper　supported　Crandall’s　hypothesis；　in　finding　that　
internalizers　do　earn　higher　grades　and　typically　outperform　externalizers　on　standard　tests　of　
academic　performance。　

Once　we　have　taken　a　test　or　made　a　decision；　to　what　do　we　attribute　our　success　or　failure？　What　
sorts　of　causal　attributions　do　we　make？　Weiner　（1974；　1986）　added　a　dimension　of　stability　to　

Crandall’s　theory。　This　dimension　states　that　if　you　find　one　specific　type　of　problem　to　be　
exceedingly　difficult　for　you；　there　is　good　reason　to　expect　problems　of　a　similar　nature　also　to　be　
difficult　for　you。　If　they　are；　it　is　a　stable　cause。　bine　this　dimension　with　ability；　effort；　luck；　and　

task　difficulty；　and　we　get　the　following　matrix：　

Locus　of　Causality　Internal　Cause　External　Cause　
Stable　Cause　Ability　Task　Difficulty　
Unstable　Cause　Effort　Luck　

A　final　issue　we　need　to　address　regarding　motivation　is　learned　helplessness。　Learned　
helplessness　deals　with　patterns　of　attributions　displayed　by　the　individual　during　explanations　of　
achievement　outes；　and　the　effects　of　these　attributional　styles　on　later　achievement。　Dweck　et　
al。　found　reliable　individual　differences　in　the　way　children　react　to　achievement　outes；　
especially　failure。　

Some　kids　are　mastery　oriented。　They　attribute　failures　to　unstable　causes；　such　as　insufficient　effort；　
and　will　increase　their　effort　on　the　next　occasion。　Conversely；　those　children　who　perceive　failure　
as　deriving　from　stable　causes　often　show　little　expenditure　of　effort　and　subsequent　deterioration　
of　performance　on　future　tasks。　These　children　seem　to　give　up　when　they　fail　and　often　will　not　
attempt　a　task　that　they　mastered　earlier。　Dweck　felt　this　to　be　a　variation　of　learned　helplessness。　If　
failure　is　attributed　to　a　cause　over　which　the　child　exercises　little　control；　they　see　little　reason　to　
keep　trying。　They　give　up　before　they　even　begin。　So　convinced　that　they　will　fail　yet　again；　they　
save　themselves　the　effort　and　do　not　even　begin　to　try。　They　learn　to　be　helpless。　Dweck　also　noted　
these　helpless　children　were　often　at　the　top　of　their　class　in　earlier　achievement。　So　what　
happened？　Sadly；　the　culprit　is　often　the　evaluations　of　the　child’s　work　by　a　teacher。　If　a　teacher　
praises　luck　or　other　unstable　factors　on　success　and　emphasizes　lack　of　ability　on　failure；　children　
will　attribute　success　to　luck　and　failure　to　a　lack　of　ability。　This　is　the　pattern　seen　in　learned　
helplessness。　If；　however；　teachers　praise　ability　on　success　and　emphasize　unstable　factors　on　
failure；　children　will　learn　mastery　orientation。　

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BIOGRAPHICAL　PROFILES　

Clark　Hull　（1884–1952）　

Clark　Hull　was　born　in　Akron；　New　York；　the　son　of　an　unschooled　farmer。　Hull　missed　much　
school　himself　as　a　child　when　duties　on　the　farm　assumed　greater　importance　than　“book　

learning。”　He　attended　Alma　College；　intending　to　be　an　engineer；　but　having　read　James’　Principles　
of　Psychology；　he　settled　on　the　study　of　philosophy　and　psychology。　In　1918；　Hull　pleted　the　
requirements　of　the　Ph。D。　at　the　University　of　Wisconsin；　where　he　taught　until　1929；　when　he　
moved　to　Yale；　where　he　remained　until　his　death。　

Hull　is　perhaps　the　most　significant　contributor　to　the　grand　era　of　learning　theory　in　America　
during　the　1930s　and　1940s。　His　particular　theory　involved　a　sophisticated　mathematical　system　
that　took　full　advantage　of　the　hypothetico…deductive　method；　generating　more　empirical　research　
during　the　1940s　and　50s　than　all　peting　theories　of　learning　bined。　Hull’s　theoretical　

system　is　presented　in　both　Principles　of　Behavior　（1943）　and　A　Behavior　System　（1952）。　He　was　
president　of　the　American　Psychological　Association　in　1936。　

David　McClelland　（b。　1917）　

David　McClelland　attended　Wesleyan　University　and　the　University　of　Missouri　before　earning　his　
Ph。D。　at　Yale　in　1941。　He　returned　to　teach　at　Wesleyan；　then　Bryn　Mawr；　Harvard；　and　Boston　
University。　McClelland’s　research　and　theoretical　work　on　human　motivation；　particularly　
regarding　achievement　and　power；　has　influenced　an　entire　generation　of　research　psychologists。　
Additionally；　his　research；　and　that　of　his　colleagues；　has　been　applied　to　many　social　contexts；　
including　industry　and　the　study　of　problem　drinking。　McClelland　has　authored　a　number　of　

books；　including　The　Achievement　Motive　（1953）。　

Abraham　Maslow　（1908–1970）　

Maslow　received　his　Ph。D。　at　the　University　of　Wisconsin　in　1934；　having　studied　under　Harry　
Harlow。　He　taught　at　Wisconsin　for　a　year；　followed　by　appointments　at　Teacher’s　College　of　
Columbia　University；　Brooklyn　College；　and；　finally；　Brandeis　University；　where　he　spent　most　of　
his　academic　career。　Maslow　moved　to　Menlo　Park；　California；　in　1969　as　a　resident　fellow　of　the　
Laughlin　Foundation。　

Maslow　is　considered　one　of　the　foremost　spokespeople　of　humanistic　psychology；　and　was　

founder　of　the　Journal　of　Humanistic　Psychology。　He　is　best　known　for　his　theory　of　motivation；　and　
the　concept　of　a　hierarchy　of　needs；　ranging　from　basic　survival　needs　to　the　need　for　self…
actualization。　His　influential　works　include　Toward　a　Psychology　of　Being　（1962）　and　Religion；　
Values；　and　Peak　Experiences　（1964）。　He　served　in　1968　as　president　of　the　American　Psychological　

Association。　

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TIMELINE　

Yea　Event　
r　
19141918　
World　War　I　was　fought。　
1929　The　Great　Depression　in　America　began。　
1938　Henry　Murray　postulated　that　many　human　behaviors　are　motivated　by　
the　“need　to　achieve；”　an　internal　tendency　to　strive　for　success。　
19391945　
World　War　II　was　fought。　
1943　Clark　Hull；　a　psychologist　at　Yale；　proposed　that