心理学与生活-第73章

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dependence　in　childhood　making　the　child　particularly　susceptible　to　the　influence　of　others。　He　
proposed　an　incredibly　powerful　need　for　interpersonal　relationships；　to　the　extent　that　he　believed　
individuals　who　were　deprived　of　interpersonal　contact　for　extended　periods　would　undergo　
deterioration　in　their　basic　personality　structure。　

Consider　Sullivan’s　definition　of　personality　for　a　moment　（the　relatively　enduring　pattern　of　
recurrent　interpersonal　situations　which　characterize　a　human　life）。　The　significant　aspect　of　this　
definition　is　that　Sullivan　intended　it　to　include　those　interpersonal　relationships　that　are　illusory　
as　well　as　those　which　are　real。　So；　in　Sullivan’s　theory；　even　the　recluse　and　the　psychotic　have　a　
“personality。”　Many　other　theories　seem　to　apply　only　to　the　normally　functioning　psyche。　

Sullivan　and　Freud　shared　a　belief　that　human　beings　strive　toward　a　reduction　of　inner　tension；　
that　the　ideal　human　state　is　one　of　euphoria—a　condition　of　total　equilibrium。　Sullivan　saw　
tension　as　the　opposite　of　euphoria；　reciprocally　related　to　it；　and　as　a　state　similar　to　a　state　of　
terror。　Of　course；　both　extremes　can　only　be　approached　and　neither　exists　in　nature；　we　exist　
somewhere　on　the　continuum　between　the　two。　He　posited　seven　specific　epochs　or　stages　through　
which　personality　may　develop；　each　epoch　representing　an　optimal　time　for　certain　innate　
capacities　to　reach　fruition。　Since　he　posits　“epochs；”　you　can　see　that　Sullivan　was　a　stage　theorist。　

Epoch　1：　Infancy。　Infancy　begins　at　birth　and　continues　until　the　appearance　of　articulate　speech。　
This　time　is　highlighted　by　the　influence　of　maternal　tenderness　and　anxiety。　The　oral　zone　is　
important　here；　as　it　brings　food　and　sustenance；　as　well　as　breathing；　crying；　and　thumb…sucking。　

Nursing　provides　the　infant　with　its　first　prototaxic　mode　or　experience　in　interpersonal　
relationships。　This　is　a　primitive　mode　of　experiencing　internal　and　external　stimuli；　is　prominent　
in　early　infancy；　consists　of　successive　momentary　discrete　states；　and　cannot　be　municated　to　
others　or　formulated　into　symbols　（i。e。；　language）。　

Around　12　to　18　months　of　life；　trial…and…error　language　begins　to　appear；　with　early　sounds　being　
imitations　of　those　in　the　environment　This　represents　the　parataxic　mode；　and　it　ushers　in　the　
second　stage　of　personality　development。　The　parataxic　mode　is　a　way　of　experiencing　internal　and　
external　stimuli　that　is　characterized　by　use　of　private　symbols　and　a　lack　of　the　conventional　
concepts　of　cause　and　effect。　

Past　infancy　and　moving　into　childhood；　we　see　the　development　of　the　self…system；　the　organized　

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perception　of　one’s　self。　The　self…system　includes　the　desirable　“good…me”　and　the　undesirable　
“bad…me。”　The　system　is　a　result　of　experiences　with　one’s　own　body　and　the　reflected　opinions　of　
significant　others；　and　has　anxiety　reduction　as　its　primary　goal。　

Epoch　2：　Childhood。　Children　now　begin　to　develop　use　of　language　and　to　acquire　responses　for　
averting　anxiety　and　parental　punishment。　These　responses　include　deception；　rationalization；　
behaving　in　the　way　parents　expect　in　order　to　please　them；　and　increasing　the　use　of　sublimation。　
Of　course；　some　punishment　does　inevitably　occur；　and　this　results　in　growth　of　the　“bad…me”　part　
of　the　self…system。　As　long　as　parents　continue　to　reinforce　the　“good…me”　part　of　the　child’s　self…
system；　the　child　will　adjust　normally。　

Epoch　3：　The　Juvenile　Era。　This　epoch　begins　with　the　emergence　of　the　need　for　playmates；　which　
is　about　the　time　the　child　enters　school。　The　syntaxic　mode　bees　prominent　now；　and　is　the　most　
highly　developed　mode　of　experiencing　internal　and　external　stimuli。　This　mode　is　characterized　by　
use　of　socially　understood　symbols　（i。e。；　words　and　numbers）；　and　by　the　understanding　of　
conventional　ideas　of　cause　and　effect。　According　to　Sullivan；　the　ability　to　live　with　and　among　
other　people　will　have　developed　by　the　end　of　this　epoch。　

Epoch　4：　Preadolescence。　This　stage　begins　with　the　emergence　of　the　need　for　a　more　intimate　
relationship　with　a　specific　member　of　the　same　sex；　Sullivan　called　this　individual　the　chum。　The　
need　for　the　chum　appears　around　ages　8　to　10　years；　and　Sullivan　considered　this　relationship　
critical　to　the　child’s　future　ability　to　form　intimate　relationships　of　both　a　sexual　and　nonsexual　
nature　during　the　adult　years。　Sullivan　felt　that　an　effective　chumship　could　be　instrumental　in　
altering　excessive　egocentricity　（such　as　tendencies　to　pout　when　things　go　wrong）；　over　
dependence　and　irresponsibility；　and　the　misguided　belief　that　we　should　be　liked　by　everyone。　He　
saw　the　chum　as　a　sort　of　reality　check　between　childhood　and　adolescence。　In　addition；　during　
this　period；　we　see　the　formation　of　the　first　structured　social　groups；　such　as　scout　troops。　

Epoch　5：　Early　Adolescence。　This　epoch　begins　with　puberty　and　the　appearance　of　the　lust　
dynamism　that　leads　to　the　desire　for　a　close　relationship　with　a　member　of　the　opposite　sex。　
Sullivan　felt　this　period　to　be　a　great　one　for　maladjustment；　due　to　the　societal　restrictions　on　the　
adolescent’s　ability　to　satisfy　the　lust　dynamism。　He　also　noted　that　the　adolescent’s　early　attempts　
at　heterosexual　relationships　can　（and　often　do）　lead　to　embarrassing　outes；　such　as　impotence；　
frigidity；　premature　ejaculation；　any　and　all　of　which　can　lead　to　serious　damage　to　one’s　self…
esteem。　He　felt　that　parental　support　during　this　time　was　critical　to　the　successful　transition　of　this　
period。　If　the　attempts　at　heterosexual　relationships　are　successful；　and　they　usually　are；　then　the　
child　has　taken　another　positive　step　up　the　ladder　of　interpersonal　relations。　

Epoch　6：　Late　Adolescence。　Late　adolescence　originates　with　the　achievement　of　satisfying　sexual　
activity。　Of　course；　the　adolescent　is　now　functioning　（at　least　part　of　the　time）　in　the　realm　of　
reality；　such　as　working　and　paying　taxes；　and　having　increased　social　responsibilities　（helping　
care　for　an　elderly　grandparent　or　a　younger　sibling；　moving　away　from　home　and　accepting　the　
concurrent　adult　life…roles）。　Sullivan　feels　that　those　adolescents　having　the　experience　of　attending　
college　have　an　advantage。　They　have　an　extra　few　years　to　make　this　transition　beyond　their　high…
school　graduation。　

Epoch　7：　Adulthood。　Harry　Stack　Sullivan　did　not　say　a　great　deal　about　adulthood；　except　that　it　
represented　the　pletion　of　personality　development。　The　reason　Sullivan　did　not　say　much　
about　adulthood　is　that　he　was　a　psychiatrist；　and　psychiatrists　do　not　get　many　opportunities　to　
observe　normally　functioning　adults。　Sullivan　was　smart　enough　to　know　that　what　he　observed　in　
the　pathological　adult　population　was　not　applicable　to　the　rest　of　the　nonpathological　population。　

Nature　versus　Nurture　

An　issue　that　has　dominated　developmental　psychology　for　years　is　the　nature—nurture　

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controversy。　This　issue　is　directly　related　to　any　discussion　of　personality　as　well。　You　might　ask　
students　how　much　of　personality　they　believe　is　genetically　inherited　（nature）　and　how　much　is　
learned　from　the　environment　（nurture）。　While　generally；　researchers　argue　that　both　appear　to　play　
a　role　in　personality；　you　might　point　out　that　how　much　of　a　role　each　plays　may　depend　on　what　
part　of　personality　you　are　discussing。　For　example；　genetics　clearly　plays　an　important　role　in　
nervous　system　development；　which　can　affect　traits　such　as　introversion。　On　the　other　hand；　the　
environment　（nurture）　plays　an　important　role　in　emotional　maturation；　as　evidenced　by　Harlow　
and　Spitz’s　studies　on　the　effects　of　early　isolation。　Ultimately；　one　of　the　best　ways　to　sum　up　the　
research　on　this　controversy　is　to　say　that　nature　sets　a　potential　range　of　development；　and　nurture　
determines　where；　within　that　range；　a　person　will　end　up。　With　some　aspects　of　personality；　
nature　sets　a　wide　range　of　development；　giving　the　environment　plenty　of　room　to　have　an　impact。　
With　other　aspects　of　personality；　nature　sets　a　narrow　range　of　development；　leaving　the　
environment　room　for　only　a　minor　impact。　With　most　aspects　of　personality；　nature　appears　to　set　
a　moderate　range　of　potential　development。　

Personality：　Add　Women　and　Stir！　

The　topic　of　personality　serves　as　an　excellent　base　for　discussing　the　feminist　perspective　within　
the　field　of　psychology。　Torrey　（1987）　has　incorporated　a　five…phase　sequence　of　sex…integration；　
proposed　by　McIntosh；　into　the　psychology　of　personality。　

Phase　1：　Womenless　Psychology。　Torrey　provides　several　interesting　examples　of　womenless　
psychology；　for　example；　only　four　of　the　707　pages　of　Hall　and　Lindzey’s　text　on　personality　
are　devoted　to　a　woman’s　theory　of　personality　（Karen　Horney’s）。　Sullivan；　Murray；　
McClelland；　and　Kohlberg　based　their　work　on　studies　of　men；　although　the　theories　usually　
are　described　as　universal。　

Phase　2：　Adding　Women　to　Psychology。　In　this　phase；　women’s　work　is　included　in　the　field　of　
psychology；　but　usually　within　the　overall　male…oriented　paradigm。　Karen　Horney’s　
contributions　within　the　psychoanalytic　field　would　represent　this　phase。　

Phase　3：　Women　as　Inherently　Different　and　Deviant。　Viewing　men　as　the　norm　and　women　
as　special　exceptions　occurs　in　Phase　3。　Freud’s　view　of　mature　female　sexuality　is　used　to　
illustrate　the　point。　Although　aware　of　the　sexual　role　of　the　clitoris；　Freud　insisted　that　mature　
sexuality　is　located　in　the　vagina。　Regarding　research；　Torrey　notes　that　when　differences　did　
appear；　psychologists　have　usually　interpreted　them　as　showing　female　inferiority。　Witkin；　for　
example；　described　the　holistic　style　of　perception　he　found　in　his　female　participants　as　a　
liability　to　thinking　analytically；　rather　than　as　a　capacity　for　global　synthesis　（Torrey；　1987；　p。　
157）。　

Phase　4：　Taking　the　Psychology　of　Women　Seriously。　This　phase　involves　the　feminist　study　
of　women；　their　development　and　social　rules。　Gilligan’s　challenge　to　Kohlberg’s　theory　
represents　this　stage；　as　does　Homer’s　extension　of　achievement　motivation　（McClelland）。　

Phase　5：　All　the　Human　Experience；　Psychology　Redefined。　A　paradigmatic　shift　would　be　
necessary　within　psychology　to　describe　the　human　experience　as　a　discipline。　Until　extensive　
work　concerning　women　is　acplished；　it　will　be　difficult　to　envision　the　changes　within　the　
field。　Do　different　theories　represent　different　phases？　Are　men　and　women　really　so　different？　
If　so；　what　are　the　social；　political；　and　economic　implications　of　personality　differences？　Since　
women　are　being　the　majority　in　the　field　of　psychology；　what　impact　do　you　think　this　will　
have　on　the　psychology　of　the　21st　century？　

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BIOGRAPHICAL　PROFILE　

Gordon　Willard　Allport　（1897–1967）　

As　a　student；　Gordon　Allport　was　deeply　influenced　by　the　writings　of　William　James；　whom　he　
resembles　in　his　style　of　investigation　and　his　unpromising