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心理学与生活-第78章

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disorder is influenced by genetic factors 
2。 Psychodynamic: This approach purports the causal mechanism(s) to 
be unconscious conflicts and hostile feelings originating in 
childhood。 Freud believed the source of depression to be displaced 
anger; originally directed at someone else; and now turned inward 
against the self 
3。 Behavioral: This approach focuses on the impact and effects of the 
amount of positive reinforcement and punishments the individual 
receives。 Lacking a sufficient level of reinforcement; the individual 
feels sad and withdraws from others。 
4。 Two Cognitive Theories: 
a) Beck argued that depressed people have negative cognitive 
sets; which promote a pattern of negative thought that 
clouds all experiences and produces the other characteristic 
signs of depression。 Negative thought patterns include 
negative views of (1) themselves; (2) ongoing experiences; 
and (3) the future。 

b) Seligman’s learned helplessness paradigm; the “explanatory 
style view of depression; in which individuals believe 
(correctly or not) that they have no control of future 
outes of importance to them。 Learned helplessness is 
marked by deficits in three areas: (1) motivational; (2) 
emotional; and (3) cognitive。 

F。 Gender Differences in Depression 
1。 Women suffer from depression twice as often as men 
2。 Research suggests differences in response style may originate in 
childhood 
a) When women experience sadness; they tend to think about 
causes and implications of their feelings; a ruminative 
response style with an obsessive focus on problems; thus 
increasing depression。 

b) Men attempt actively to distract themselves from negative 

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feelings through physical exercise or by focusing on 
something else。 Other research has also revealed a 
maladaptive tendency for men to distract themselves 
through use of alcohol; drugs; or violent behaviors。 

G。 Suicide 
1。 Patterns of suicide 
a) The 8th leading cause of death in the U。 S。; 3rd among the 
young; and 2nd among college students 

b) Five million living Americans have attempted suicide 

c) For each pleted suicide; there are 8 to 20 attempts 

d) Suicide usually affects at least 6 other individuals 

2。 Every 9 minutes; a teenager attempts suicide; every 90 minutes one 
succeeds 
3。 Suicide rates for African American youths; of both sexes; are roughly 
half that for white youths。 These racial differences persist across the 
life span。 
4。 Gay and lesbian youth are at higher risk than are other adolescents 
5。 Youth suicide is not an impulsive act。 It typically occurs as the final 
stage of a period of inner turmoil and outer distress。 
H。 Personality Disorders 
1。 A personality disorder is a chronic; inflexible; maladaptive pattern of 
perceiving; thinking; or behaving that can seriously impair the 
individual’s ability to function and can cause significant distress。 
Examples include: 
a) Paranoid personality disorders: Show a consistent pattern of 
distrust and suspiciousness about the motives of people with 
whom they interact。 These individuals believe others are 
trying to harm or deceive them they may find unpleasant 
meanings in harmless situations; and expect their friends; 
spouses; or partners to be disloyal。 

b) Histrionic personality disorder: Characterized by patterns of 
excessive emotionality and attention seeking。 Sufferers offer 
strong opinions; with great drama; but with little evidence to 
back their claims。 They react to minor occasions with 
overblown emotional responses。 

c) Narcissistic personality disorders: Manifests grandiose sense of 
self…importance; preoccupation with fantasies of success or 
power; and need for constant admiration。 These individuals 
often have problems in interpersonal relationships; tending 
to feel entitled to special favors without reciprocal 
obligation。 They exploit others for their own purposes and 
experience difficulty in realizing and experiencing how 
others feel。 

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CHAPTER 15: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 

d) Antisocial personality disorder: Manifested by a long…standing 
pattern of irresponsible or unlawful behavior that violates 
established social norms。 These individuals often do not feel 
shame or remorse for their hurtful behaviors。 A violation of 
social norms begins early in life; the actions are marked by 
indifference to the rights of others。 

I。 Dissociative Disorders 
1。 Consist of a disturbance in the integration of identity; memory; or 
consciousness。 Psychologists believe that in dissociative disorders 
the individual escapes from his or her conflicts by giving up 
consistency and continuity of the self 
2。 Dissociative amnesia refers to the forgetting of important personal 
experiences; caused by psychological factors in the absence of any 
organic dysfunction 
3。 Dissociative identity disorder; formerly known as multiple personality 
disorder; is a dissociative mental disorder in which two or more 
distinct personalities exist within the same individual。 May involve 
chronic; severe abuse during childhood。 
IV。 Schizophrenic Disorders 
A。 Schizophrenic Disorders are a severe form of psychopathology in which personality 
seems to disintegrate; thought and perception are distorted; and emotions are blunted 
1。 Hallucinations occur often; and are assumed real 
2。 Delusions; false or irrational beliefs maintained regardless of 
evidence to the contrary; are mon 
3。 Other manifestations 
a) Incoherent language; word salad 

b) Flattened or inappropriate emotions 

c) Disorganized psychomotor behavior 

4。 Categories of symptoms 
a) Positive symptoms: hallucinations; delusions; incoherence; 
and disorganized behavior are prominent during the acute 
or active phases。 

b) Negative symptoms: social withdrawal and flattened 
emotions bee more apparent during the chronic phase。 

B。 Major Types of Schizophrenia 
1。 Disorganized type: Individual displays inappropriate behavior and 
emotions; incoherent language。 
a) Incoherent thought patterns and grossly bizarre and 
disorganized behavior 

b) Emotions are flattened or situationally inappropriate; 

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language may be incoherent; munications with others 

break down 

c) If present; hallucinations and delusions lack organization 
around a central theme 

2。 Catatonic type: Individual displays frozen; rigid; or excitable motor 
behavior 
a) Major feature is disruption in motor activity 

b) Also characterized by extreme negativism and resistance to 
all instructions 

3。 Paranoid type: Individuals suffer plex and systematized 
delusions; focused around a specific theme; often delusions of 
grandeur or persecution。 Symptom onset is usually later in life than 
in other types of schizophrenia。 Manifestations include: 
a) Delusions of persecution; in which the individual believes 
he/she is being constantly spied upon; plotted against; or is 
in mortal danger 

b) Delusions of grandeur; in which the individual believes 
he/she is an important or exalted being; such as Jesus Christ 

c) Delusional jealousy; in which the individual bees 
convinced (without due cause) that his or her mate is 
unfaithful 

4。 Undifferentiated type: The schizophrenic “grab…bag;” describing the 
individual who exhibits 
a) Prominent delusions; hallucinations; incoherent speech; or 
grossly disorganized behavior that fit criteria of more than 
one type; or of no clear type 

b) Hodgepodge of symptoms fails to differentiate clearly 
among the schizophrenic reactions。 

5。 Residual type: Individuals have typically experienced a major episode 
within the past; but are currently free of major positive symptoms。 
a) Ongoing presence of the disorder is signaled by minor 
positive symptoms or negative symptoms; such as flattened 
affect 

b) Diagnosis of residual type may indicate the individual’s 
disorder is entering a stage of remission; being dormant 

C。 Causes of Schizophrenia 
1。 Genetic Approaches 
a) Disorder tends to run in families; with increased risk if both 
parents have the disorder 

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CHAPTER 15: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 

b) Probability of identical twins both having the disorder is 
approximately 3 times greater than is the probability for 
fraternal twins 

c) Diathesis…stress hypothesis suggests genetic factors place the 
individual at risk; but environmental stressors must impinge 
for the potential risk to be manifested 

2。 Brain Function and Biological Markers 
a) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be used to show 
brain structures (i。e。; ventricles) that are enlarged by up to 
50% in individuals with schizophrenia 

b) Imaging also reveals that individuals with schizophrenia 
may have differing patterns of brain activity than those 
found in normal controls 

c) The dopamine hypothesis posits an association with an excess 
of the neurotransmitter dopamine; at specific receptor sites 
in the central nervous system (CNS)。 

d) A biological marker is a “measurable indicator of disease that 
may or may not be causal”; that is; it may correlate with the 
disorder。 No known marker perfectly predicts; or brings 
about; schizophrenia。 

3。 Family Interaction and munication 
a) Hope remains for identification of an environmental 
circumstance that increases the likelihood of schizophrenia 

b) Research does offer evidence for theoretical position that 
emphasizes the influence of deviations in parental 
munications on the subsequent development of 
schizophrenia 

c) Research indicates family factors do play a role in 
influencing functioning after the symptoms appear 

V。The Stigma of Mental Illness 
A。 The Problem of Stigma 
1。 Individuals with psychological disorders are frequently labeled as 
deviant; though this label is not true to prevailing realities 
2。 Stigma is a mark or brand of disgrace; in the context of psychology; it 
is a set of negative attitudes about a person that sets him or her apart 
as unacceptable” 
3。 Negative attitudes toward the psychologically disturbed; which 
e from many sources; bias perceptions of and actions toward 
these individuals 
4。 Mental illness can bee one of life’s self…fulfilling prophecies 
5。 Research suggests that people who have contact with individuals 
with mental illness hold attitudes less affected by stigma 
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

1。 What if a well…controlled study showed that “crazy” people were more creative; happier; 
and lived longer than “normal” or “sane” people? Ask the class how this knowledge 
might change their individual therapies of abnormal or pathological behavior。 
2。 What if someone were to give each member of your class a psychiatric diagnostic label 
and offer each of them 100;000 if they would go into a mental hospital ward and live up 
to their label for a month without being discharged as either cured or normal? How well 
do class members think they would do? What specific acts would they engage in? Have 
a student randomly select a diagnostic label from the chapter and then have the class list 
the specific actions they would perform

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