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experienced was real。 While clearly something has happened to them; what might it be? 
Although it is remotely possible that they were abducted or have somehow left their body; the 
lack of any substantial confirming evidence has left scientists doubtful of such claims。 If they 
were not really abducted or did not really leave their body; what else might have happened to 
them? You might discuss with students alternative explanations for these experiences。 Since 
some researchers have been able to recreate out…of…body sensations in the laboratory by 
stimulating areas of the temporal lobes; might this explain some of these experiences? While 
scientists believe so; many of those who have had these experiences do not。 Since no one really 
knows the answer yet; there is plenty of room for speculation on this topic and it makes for an 
interesting discussion; because it is a topic about which many students are quite curious。 

Narcissistic Personality 

Some people have argued in recent years that narcissistic personality disorder has bee the 
characteristic disorder of our time。 They have argued that the “baby boom” generation; in 

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particular is the most self…centered and “spoiled” generation in American history。 Some have 
even used this idea of generational narcissism to explain some of Bill Clinton’s problems with his 
sexual behavior。 Do students agree with this idea? Why or why not? What influences have 
fostered this belief? At what point does normal self…interest bee narcissistic and self…
defeating? How does intrusive press coverage into the personal lives of public figures and 
constant hyping of celebrities; athletes; and even criminals by the media contribute to this? 

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Is Mental Illness a Myth? 

Dr。 Thomas Szasz has forcefully argued for years that mental illness is a myth。 His position is 
that mental illnesses are labels we attach to social nonconformists as a way of punishing; 
discrediting; and stigmatizing them for their nonconformity。 You might discuss this with 
students to see if they agree with this somewhat radical notion。 While it is true that historically; 
political regimes have sometimes labeled their opponents as being mentally ill as an excuse to 
imprison them; there is little evidence that all people with mental illness are just being labeled for 
being a threat to the social order。 What evidence is there that mental illness is more than just a 
method of labeling those whose behaviors makes us unfortable? 

What Is a Nervous Breakdown? 

When discussing mental illness; many students will mention knowing someone who has had a 
“nervous breakdown;” and will ask what it is。 You might discuss the fact that the term 〃nervous 
breakdown〃 is not a valid clinical term; technically; there is no such thing; However; it has been 
informally used by the general public to describe a variety of mental health problems。 Sometimes 
it has been used to describe an individual who has experienced a psychotic episode。 Other times 
it has been used to describe an individual who has had a major depressive episode。 You might 
discuss with students the types of symptoms shown by someone they have heard has suffered a 
nervous breakdown。 Perhaps they can find a more clinically accurate diagnosis of what the 
person has actually experienced。 

TIMELINE 

Year Event 
1793 Philippe Pinel was appointed head of the Asylum of Bicetre; France。 He 
immediately sought to improve living conditions and treatment of patients。 
1796 William Turk opened the York Retreat in England; a country asylum without 
bars or manacles。 
1824 Eli Todd founded the Hartford Retreat in the U。S。; an institution that sought 
to provide proper medical; as well as psychological; treatment for patients。 
1841 Dorothea Dix began her campaign for proper care and housing of the 
mentally ill。 
1859 Charles Darwin published On the Origin of the Species by a Means of Natural 
Selection。 
1896 Sigmund Freud eschewed use of hypnosis as a therapeutic tool。 
1900 Sigmund Freud wrote what many considered to be his best book; The 
Interpretation of Dreams。 
1908 Clifford Beers; a former mental patient; founded the National mittee for 
Mental Hygiene in Connecticut。 Among the mittee’s charter members 
was William James。 The mittee later became known as the National 
Association for Mental Health。 
1911 Eugene Bleuler coined the term “schizophrenia。” 

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19141918 
World War I was fought。 
1929 The Great Depression began in America。 
1935 Portuguese psychiatrist Egas Moniz performed the first lobotomy。 
1940s David Shakow was influential in establishing clinical training programs in 
American universities。 
1940s Electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT) gained popularity as a therapeutic 
tool。 
19391945 
World War II was fought。 
1942 Carl Rogers published Counseling and Psychotherapy; introducing the client…
centered approach to therapy。 
1950s Both psychosurgery and drug therapy were introduced in the U。S。 Problems 
with psychosurgery were eventually realized; and drug therapy proved 
highly successful in controlling many types of psychological disorders。 
1952 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association was 
published。 
1952 Hans Eysenck attacked the value of psychotherapy as a means of improving 
mental health。 
19501953 
The Korean War was fought。 
1958 Joseph Wolpe developed a therapeutic technique known as systematic 
desensitization。 
1961 Thomas Szasz published The Myth of Mental Illness; suggesting that 
psychological disorders have been conceptualized incorrectly。 
1963 President John F。 Kennedy was assassinated。 
1967 Neal Miller and colleagues performed experimental research leading to the 
development of biofeedback。 
1977 Albert Bandura published Social Learning Theory; suggesting modeling as a 
therapeutic tool 
1984 Researchers linked the neurotransmitter dopamine to schizophrenia。 
1987 DSM…III…R was published。 
1994 DSM…IV was published。 
2000 DSM…IV…TR was published。 

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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 

American Psychiatric Association。 (1994)。 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American 
Psychiatric Association; 4th Ed。 Washington; DC: American Psychiatric Association。 Although 
not totally turning the diagnostic system on its ear; there are sufficient changes to warrant 
reading this latest edition…how else would one know that “multiple personality disorder” is 
now “dissociative identity disorder”? 

Bayh; B。 (1983)。 Myths and Realities: A Report of the National mission on the Insanity Defense。 
Arlington; VA: National Mental Health Association。 This mission was established by the 
National Mental Health Association; a consumer advocacy organization; in order to make 
remendations regarding the insanity plea。 Their report is available for purchase from 
1800 N。 Kent Street; Arlington; VA 22209。 Definitely worth reading。 

Beck; A。 (1997)。 The Past and Future of Cognitive Therapy。 Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and 
Research; 6(4); 276…284。 Beck describes the development of cognitive…behavioral therapy from 
its earliest beginnings to its most recent manifestations。 

Beck; A。 T。 (1985)。 Anxiety Disorders and Phobias。 New York: Basic Books。 This book explains 
anxiety disorders and phobias as disturbances in cognition that cause disturbances in feeling 
and behavior。 

Ellis; A。 (1997)。 The Practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy; 2nd Ed。 New York: Springer 
Publishing。 A plete update of Ellis’ earlier work。 Contains many new references and new 
research。 

Goffman; E。 (1963)。 Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity。 Though an older 
publication; Goffman’s insights into the daily problems of individuals “stigmatized” by the 
vagaries of fate or society are excellent; well worth reading。 

Maxmen; J。 S。; & Ward; N。 G。 (I 995)。 Essential Psychopathology and Its Treatment; 2nd Ed。 New 
York: W。 W。 Norton & Co。 May be considered as a “panion” volume to DSM…IV; in that it 
explains DSM…IV; presents its diagnostic categories and illuminates them; as well as 
providing treatment guidelines and case vignettes。 

Robinson; D。 (1996)。 Wild Beasts & Idle Humours: The Insanity Defense from Antiquity to the Present。 
Cambridge; Harvard University Press。 Documents the uses and abuses of the insanity 
defense from antiquity to the present。 

Rosenhan; D。 I。 (1973)。 On Being Sane in Insane Places。 Science; 179; 250…258。 This article details 
Rosenhan’s classic study of the danger of labeling people as “mentally ill;” and mental health 
professionals’ over reliance on stereotypic symptoms。 

Rosenhan; D。; & Seligman; M。 (1995)。 Abnormal Psychology; 3rd Ed。 New York: W。 W。 Norton。 The 
definitions; history; and major schools of thought and treatment of abnormality are presented 
first。 Then; each of the major disorders—their description; their causes; and their 
treatments—is laid out in light of the peting schools of thought。 An excellent 
introductory text。 

Seligman; M。 (1995)。 The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy: The Consumer Reports Study。 American 
Psychologist; 50(12); 965…974。 Reports on a large…scale survey that suggests that psychotherapy 
produces significant positive change。 

Spitzer; R。 L。; Skodoe; A。 E。; Gibbon; M。; & Williams; J。 B。 W。 (1981)。 DSM…III Casebook: A Learning 
panion to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders; 3rd Ed Washington; D 

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C: American Psychological Association。 Contains a series of descriptive vignettes; based on 
actual patients; followed by a rationale for the diagnostic category used for that person。 This 
book is a treasure of good examples for lecture。 
Szasz; T。 (1974)。 The Myth of Mental Illness: Foundations of a Theory of Personal Conduct; (Rev Ed)。 
New York: Harper & Row。 Posits that what is termed “mental illness” is; in fact; behavior 
disapproved of by the speaker…a stigmatizing moral judgment; not a medical diagnosis。 A 
classic text that articulates a fascinating alternative to the dominant view of mental illness。 

DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY 

PROGRAM 21: PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 

Overview 

The major types of mental illness; including schizophrenia; anxiety; and affective and bipolar 
disorders; and the major factors that influence them; both biological and psychological。 

Key Issues 

Mistreatment of mentally ill patients in psychiatric hospitals; biological versus psychological 
study of schizophrenia; the role of genetics in mental disorders; genetic study of 
schizophrenic and healthy twins; SPECT analysis; and cultural factors in psychopathology。 

Interviews 

David Rosenhan details his dehumanizing treatment at a psychiatric hospital after he was 

admitted as a patient during an experiment on the perception of mental illness。 

Fuller Torrey pares schizophrenia to other biological diseases。 

Psychologist Hans Strupp examines the role of early childhood behavior in the development 
of schizop

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