心理学与生活-第83章
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3。 Psychodynamic therapy is often called insight therapy
4。 The “talking cure” began with Joseph Breuer in 1880; as treatment for
hysterical conversion resulting from psychogenic causes
5。 Free Association and Catharsis
a) Free association involves allowing the mind to wander and
giving a running account of thoughts; wishes; while relaxing
fortably
(i) Freud maintained free associations were
predetermined; not random
(ii) Encouraged expression of strong feelings; repressed
through fear of punishment or retaliation; an
emotional release termed catharsis
6。 Resistance is an inability or an unwillingness to discuss certain ideas;
desires; or experiences
7。 Dream analysis is a therapeutic technique that examines content of
dreams to discover underlying or disguised motivations and
symbolic meanings of significant life experiences and desires
8。 Transference and Countertransference
a) Transference is the development by the patient of emotional
feelings toward the therapist
b) Countertransference occurs when the therapist es to like
or dislike a patient because the patient is perceived as
similar to significant people in the therapist’s life
B。 Neo…Freudian Therapies
1。 Freud’s followers placed more emphasis than did Freud on:
a) Patient’s current social environment; less focus on past
b) Patient’s continuing life experiences
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c) The role of social motivation and interpersonal relations of
love
d) The significance of ego functioning and development of self…
concept
2。 Harry Stack Sullivan felt Freudian therapy failed to recognize the
importance of social relationships
a) Posited building of a self…system to keep anxiety at a
tolerable level; with the system deriving from the child’s
interpersonal experiences。
3。 Karen Horney stressed importance of environmental and cultural
contexts in which neurotic behavior is expressed; rejecting Freudian
phallocentrism in favor of gynocentrism
4。 Heinz Kohut emphasized the self; and founded the object relations
school of psychodynamics
III。 Behavior Therapies
A。 Behavior therapy and behavior modification both refer to the systematic use of principles
of learning to increase the frequency of desired behaviors and/or decrease that of problem
behaviors
B。 Counterconditioning
1。 A new response is conditioned to replace or “counter” a maladaptive
response
2。 Systematic Desensitization and Other Exposure Therapies
a) Joseph Wolpe’s theory of reciprocal inhibition states that the
nervous system cannot be relaxed and agitated
simultaneously。
b) Systematic desensitization: A behavioral therapy technique in
which a client is taught to prevent the arousal of anxiety by
confronting the feared stimulus while relaxed。
Desensitization therapy involves three major steps:
(i) Identification of anxiety…provoking stimuli; and
arranging them hierarchically; from weakest to
strongest
(ii) Training in progressive deep…muscle relaxation
(iii) Actual process of desensitization; the progressive
imagining of stimuli; from weakest to strongest
c) Implosion therapy: the opposite of desensitization。 Client is
exposed immediately to the most frightening stimuli at the
top of his or her anxiety hierarchy; but in a safe setting
d) Flooding: similar to implosion; but involves clients being
placed in the phobic situation
3。 Aversion therapy uses counterconditioning to pair stimuli with strong
noxious stimuli
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C。 Contingency Management
1。 Relies on operant conditioning principles pioneered by B。 F。 Skinner
2。 Refers to the general treatment strategy of changing behavior by
modifying its consequences。 Major techniques are:
a) Positive reinforcement strategies
(i) Token economies
(ii) Shaping
(iii) Behavioral contracts
b) Extinction strategies are useful when dysfunctional
behaviors have been maintained by unrecognized
reinforcing circumstances
D。 Social…Learning Therapy
1。 Social…learning therapy is designed to modify problematic behavior
patterns by arranging conditions in which the client will observe
models being reinforced for a desirable form of responding。
2。 Two aspects of this approach include imitation of models and social
skills training
a) Imitation of models: Individuals acquire responses through
observation of others (models)
b) Social…skills training: Training individuals with inadequate
social skills to be more effective using behavioral rehearsal
E。 Generalization Techniques
1。 Do clients use new behavior patterns generated in the therapeutic
setting in everyday situations?
2。 Generalization techniques attempt to increase similarity of target
behaviors; reinforcers; models; and stimulus demands between
therapy and real…life settings
IV。 Cognitive Therapies
A。 Cognitive Therapies attempt to change problem feelings and behaviors by changing the
way the client thinks about significant life experiences
B。 Cognitive Behavior Modification
1。 Approach bines cognitive emphasis on the role of thoughts and
attitudes influencing motivations and response with behaviorist
focus on changing performance through reinforcement contingencies
2。 Unacceptable behavior patterns are modified by cognitive
restructuring
3。 Critical aspect is discovery by therapist and client of how the client
thinks about and expresses the problem for which therapy is sought
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CHAPTER 16: THERAPIES FOR PERSONAL CHANGE
C。 Changing False Beliefs
1。 Some cognitive therapists argue that many psychological problems
arise as a function of how people think about themselves relative to
other people and the events they face。 Faulty thinking can be based
on:
a) Unreasonable attitudes
b) False premises
c) Rigid rules that put behavior on “autopilot”
2。 Cognitive Therapy for Depression
a) The therapist helps the client to identify his or her irrational
ways of thinking and to learn more realistic ways to
formulate personal experiences
b) Four tactics used to change the cognitive foundation that
supports the depression:
(i) Challenging basic assumptions about his or her
functioning
(ii) Evaluating evidence the client has for and against
accuracy of automatic thoughts
(iii) Reattributing blame to situational factors rather than
client’s inpetence
(iv) Discussing alternative solutions to plex tasks
that could otherwise lead to experiences of failure
3。 Rational…Emotive Therapy (RET): A prehensive system of
personality change based on transformation of irrational beliefs that
cause undesirable emotional reactions
a) RET teaches clients to recognize “shoulds;” “oughts;” and
“musts” that are controlling their actions and preventing
them from choosing the lives they want
b) RET’s goal is to increase sense of self…worth and potential for
self…actualization
V。Existential…Humanistic Therapies
A。 Background
1。 Existential crises include problems in everyday living; lack of
meaningful human relationships; and absence of goals or purpose
2。 Existential…humanistic philosophy gave rise to the human…potential
movement; which enpassed practices and methods enhancing the
potential of the average human being toward greater levels of
performance and greater richness of experience
B。 Client…Centered Therapy
1。 Primary goal is to promote healthy psychological growth of the
individual
2。 Assumption: All people share the tendency to self…actualize; to reach
their potential
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
3。 Incongruence: a conflict between naturally positive self…image and
negative external criticism。 Creates anxiety; unhappiness; and low
self…worth
4。 Therapeutic strategy: To recognize; accept; and clarify client’s feelings
in an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard; nonjudgmental
acceptance and respect for the client。
C。 Gestalt Therapy
1。 Focus on uniting of mind and body to make the person whole
2。 Goal of self…awareness by helping clients express pent…up feelings
and unfinished business from past conflicts
VI。 Group Therapies:
A。 Marital and Family Therapy
1。 Couples counseling seeks clarity in munication between partners;
and works to improve the quality of interaction。 It is more effective
in resolution of marital problems than individual therapy for only
one partner
2。 Family therapy client is the entire nuclear family; with each member
treated as a member of a system of relationships
a) Focus is on altering psychological space between people
b) The interpersonal dynamics of people acting as a unit
c) Most family therapists assume problems brought to therapy
to represent situational difficulties; rather than dispositional
aspects of individuals
d) Job of family therapist is understanding the structure of the
family and the forces acting on it
B。 munity Support Groups
1。 Self…help groups help many people obtain psychological support in
the munity setting
2。 Address four basic problem areas:
a) Addictive behavior
b) Physical and mental disorders
c) Life transition or other crises
d) Trauma of family and friends of those with specific
problems
VII。 Biomedical Therapies
A。 Psychosurgery and Electroconvulsive Therapy
1。 Psychosurgery is the general term for surgical procedures performed
on brain tissue to alleviate psychological disorders; with the
prefrontal lobotomy being best known
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2。 Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) is the use of electroconvulsive shock
to treat psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia; mania; and;
most often; severe depression
a) ECT is successful in treatment of severe depression。 It works
quickly。
b) Potentially negative effects of ECT include temporary
disorientation and memory deficits
B。 Drug Therapy
1。 Psychopharmacology: the branch of psychology investigating the
effects of drugs on behavior
2。 The three major categories of drugs used today are:
a) Antipsychotics alter symptoms of schizophrenia。 Examples
include Thorazine; Haldol; and Clozaril。
b) Antidepressants increase the activity of the neurotransmitters
norepinephrine and serotonin。 Examples include Tofranil;
Prozac; Paxil; and Zoloft
c) Antianxiety agents (anxiolytics) adjust levels of
neurotransmitter activity in the brain。 Examples include
Valium and Xanax。
3。 Prescriptions for Psychoactive Drugs
a) The rate at which drugs are prescribed changes over time
b) From 1985 to 1994; prescription of antianxiety tranquilizers
decreased from 52 to 33 percent of all mental health doctors
visits; while prescriptions for antidepressants increased from
30 to 45 percent
4。 When Is Drug Therapy Necessary?
a) Although drugs can produce tremendous improvements in
psychological functioning; research suggests that some
forms of therapy may have the same effect on the brain as a
course of drug treatment
VIII。 Does Therapy Work?
A。 Evaluating Therapeutic Effectiveness
1。 Spontaneous…remission effect is one baseline criterion of naturally
occurrin