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心理学与生活-第87章

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who engaged in chronic self…abuse。 

Peer…Conducted Behavior Modification (1976)。 VCIREPR; 24 minutes 

Paul Clement discusses the role of peers in shaping deviant behavior; as well as the value of 
peers as positive modifiers in a therapy program。 

Portrait of Manic Depression (1988)。 FANIJI; 60 minutes 

Profiles four individuals who struggle to control the extreme mood swings caused by bipolar 
depression…an illness that affects nearly three million Americans。 Current treatments are 
reviewed。 

R。 D。 Laing: A Dialogue on Mental Illness and Its Treatment (1976)。 Assoc。 Films; 22 minutes 
Laing presents his critical views as an “anti…psychiatrist” on what creates abnormal behavior and 
how it should be treated。 

Romance to Recovery (1979)。 FMS; 36 minutes 

Dr。 Joseph Pursch describes how alcoholism adversely affects the normal relationships of the 
family and turns other family members into co…alcoholics who operate to reinforce the alcoholism 
of one member Follows an alcoholic/co…alcoholic family through cover…up; manipulation; 
medical plications; child abuse; remorse; separation; revenge; and reunion。 Emphasizes that 
all family members need treatment and that solutions are available; and talks about how to find 
them。 This is a good depiction of family therapy; and it focuses on a problem that personally 
affects 10% of the American population。 

335 


CHAPTER 17 
Social Processes and Relationships 

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to: 

1。 Explain how the environment or social factors help determine how individuals think; 
feel; and behave 
2。 Discuss the important lessons learned from the Stanford Prison Experiment 
3。 Describe and discuss the processes of conformity 
4。 Describe the concepts and processes involved with persuasion and attitude change 
5。 Explain the concept of the social construction of reality 
6。 Discuss the importance of attributions and the significance of the fundamental
attributional error
7。 Describe theories of social expectancy and self…fulfilling prophecy 
8。 Demonstrate a thorough knowledge and understanding of cognitive dissonance 
9。 Explain how interpersonal attraction relates to prejudice 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 The Power of the Situation 
A。 Definitions 
1。 Social psychology is the study of the ways in which thoughts; feelings; 
perceptions; motives; and behavior are influenced by interactions 
and transactions between people 
2。 Social context includes the real; imagined; or symbolic presence of 
other people; the activities and interactions that take place between 
people; the features of the settings in which behavior occurs; and the 
expectations and norms that govern behavior in a given setting 
B。 Roles and Rules 
1。 A social role is a socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected 
of a person when functioning in a given setting or group 
2。 Rules are behavioral guidelines for specific settings 
a) Explicit rules are specifically stated or taught to children 
b) Implicit rules are learned through transactions with others in 
particular settings 

3。 The Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated the effects of roles and 
rules 
a) Roles were designated randomly 

336 


CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS 

(i) “Guards” were put in charge of “prisoners” and 
behaved aggressively; sometimes even sadistically 
(ii) Prisoners behaved passively; resigned to an 
unexpected fate。 
b) The simulated prison environment created a new social 
reality 

c) Coercive rules included explicit punishments for violations 

d) Prisoners could only react to the social structure of the 
prison like setting created by those in power 

C。 Social Norms are specific expectations for socially appropriate attitudes and behaviors 
that are embodied in the stated or implicit rule of a group 
1。 Adjustment to group norms occurs in two ways: 
a) Observation of uniformities in certain behaviors of all or most 
members are noted 
b) Observation of negative consequences for norm violation 

2。 Coercive power of the group can be experienced by implementation 
of three painful R’s: 
a) Ridicule 
b) Reeducation
c) Rejection


D。 Conformity 
1。 Conformity is the tendency for people to adopt the behavior and 
opinions presented by other group members。 Two types of forces 
may lead to conformity: 
a) Informational influence where individuals conform in an 
effort to be correct and to understand how best to act in a 
given situation 

b) Normative influence where individuals conform in an effort 
to be liked; accepted; and approved of by others 

2。 Informational Influence: Sherif’s autokinetic effect 
a) Norm crystallization is the formation and solidification of 
norms 

b) Autokinetic effect refers to “a type of apparent motion in 
which a small; objectively stationary spot of light in an 
otherwise dark room appears to move about” 

c) Although individual judgments vary widely; stating 
judgments aloud brought about convergence of opinion 

3。 Normative Influence: The Asch Effect 
337 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

a) Asch created circumstances in which participants made 
judgments under conditions in which physical reality was 
absolutely clear; but the rest of the group reported that they 
saw the world differently 

b) Procedure 

(i) Both participants and confederates agreed on first 
three trials 
(ii) On fourth trial; first confederate “matched” two 
stimuli that were not a true match; all confederates 
did the same 
(iii) Participants had to determine whether to confirm to 
the group view or remain independent 
c) Results 

(i) Roughly one…fourth of participants remained 
independent 
(ii) Between 50% and 80% of participants conformed to 
the false majority estimate at least once 
(iii) Participants yielding to majority were “disoriented” 
and “doubt ridden;” experiencing “a powerful 
impulse not to appear different from the majority” 
(iv) Two plementary lessons learned: 
(a) People are not entirely swayed by normative 
influence。 They assert their independence on a 
majority of occasions 
(b) People will sometimes conform; even in the most 
unambiguous situations。 That potential to 
conform is an important element of human 
nature 
4。 Conformity in Everyday Life: Minority influence and nonconformity 
a) Majority decisions tend to be made without engaging the 
systematic thought and critical thinking skills of the 
individuals in the group 

b) Minority groups have little normative influence; but they do 
have informational influence 

c) The majority tends to be the defender of the status quo 

5。 Groupthink is the tendency of a decision…making group to filter out 
undesirable input so that a consensus may be reached; especially if 
the consensus is in line with the leader’s viewpoint。 
E。 Situational Power: Candid Camera Revelations 
1。 Smart; independent; rational; good people can be led to behave in 
ways that are foolish; pliant; irrational; and evil 
2。 Human nature follows a situational script to the letter 
338 


CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS 

IInstructing Social Reality 
A。 Social Reality 
1。 Two individuals; observing the same event; may interpret it in very 
different ways。 Each constructs social reality in a unique way; bringing 
his or her personal knowledge and experience to bear in interpreting 
the situation 
2。 There is no objective social reality; there are only the individual’s 
construction and interpretation of it 
3。 Social Perception is the process by which people e to understand 
and categorize the behaviors of others 
B。 The Origins of Attribution Theory 
1。 Attribution theory is a general approach to describe the ways the 
social perceiver uses information to generate causal explanations 
a) Heider suggested people are all intuitive psychologists; 
attempting to discern what people are like and what causes 
their behavior 

b) Heider suggested that questions dominating most 
attributional analyses are whether the cause of the behavior 
is dispositional (internal) or situational (external) 

2。 Kelley observed that people most often make causal attributions for 
events under conditions of uncertainty using the covariation principle 
a) Covariation principle: People attribute behavior to a causal 
factor if that factor was present when the behavior occurred; 
but was absent whenever the behavior didn’t occur 

b) Covariation is assessed using three dimensions of 
information 

(i) Distinctiveness refers to whether the behavior is 
specific to a particular situation 
(ii) Consistency refers to whether the behavior occurs 
repeatedly in response to this situation 
(iii) Consensus refers to whether other people also 
produce the same behavior in the same situation 
C。 The Fundamental Attribution Error 
1。 The Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) represents the dual 
tendency for people to overestimate dispositional factors and to 
underestimate situational ones when searching for the cause of some 
behavior of oute 
a) The FAE may be due in part to cultural sources 

D。 Self…serving bias leads people to take credit for their successes while denying 
responsibility for their failures 
E。 Expectations and Self…Fulfilling Prophecies 
339 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

1。 Self…fulfilling prophecies are predictions made about some future 
behavior or event that modifies interactions to produce what is 
expected 
2。 Expectations are powerful and self…fulfilling prophecies are most 
likely to occur when the individual has not had an opportunity to 
develop accurate expectations before judgments must be made 
F。 Behaviors that Confirm Expectations 
1。 Behavioral confirmation is the process by which someone’s 
expectations about another person actually influence the second 
person to behave in ways that confirm the original hypothesis 
a) Behavior confirmation depends on the availability of 
accurate information from the environment 

b) Expectations have their greatest effect when the actual state 
of the world is uncertain 

III。 Attitudes; Attitude Change; and Action 
A。 Attitudes and Behaviors 
1。 An attitude is a positive or negative evaluation of people; objects; or 
ideas 
2。 Three types of experiences give rise to attitudes: 
a) Cognitive 

b) Affective 

c) Behavioral 

3。 One property of attitudes that predicts behavior is accessibility; the 
strength of the association between an attitude object and a person’s 
evaluation of that object 
a) Attitudes are more accessible when they are based on direct 
experience 

4。 Attitudes are more predictive of behavior when the attitudes and 
behaviors are measured at the same level of specificity 
B。 Processes of Persuasion 
1。 Persuasion refers to deliberate efforts to change attitude 
2。 The Elaboration Likelihood Model suggests that there are two routes to 
persuasion: 
a) The Central Route represents circumstances in which people 
think carefully about a persuasive munication so that 
attitude change depends on the logical strength of the 
arguments。 Central route arguments depend on facts; 
featur

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