心理学与生活-第88章

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arguments。　Central　route　arguments　depend　on　facts；　
features；　and　objective　qualities。　

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b）　The　Peripheral　Route　represents　circumstances　in　which　
people　do　not　focus　critically　on　the　message；　but　respond　to　
superficial　cues　in　the　situation。　Peripheral　route　messages　
depend　on　sex　appeal；　image；　prestige；　and　subjective　
qualities。　

3。　The　route　that　people　take　depends　on　their　motivation　to　process　
and　critically　analyze　the　message　
C。　Persuasion　by　Your　Own　Actions　
1。　Dissonance　Theory　
a）　Cognitive　dissonance　is　the　state　of　conflict　someone　
experiences　after　making　a　decision；　taking　an　action；　or　
being　exposed　to　information　that　is　contrary　to　prior　beliefs；　
feelings；　or　values　

（i）　Dissonance…reducing　activities　modify　the　
unpleasant　state　and　achieve　consonance　among　
cognitions　
（ii）　Dissonance　has　motivational　force　and　impels　the　
individual　to　act　to　reduce　the　unpleasant　feeling　
（iii）　The　greater　the　dissonance；　the　greater　the　
motivation　to　reduce　it　
b）　Under　conditions　of　high　dissonance；　the　individual　acts　to　
justify　his　or　her　behavior　after　the　fact；　engages　in　self…
persuasion；　and　often　bees　a　convincing　municator　

c）　Recently　researchers　have　begun　to　question　whether　
dissonance　effects　generalize　to　cultures　in　which　
individuals　have　an　interdependent　conception　of　self；　such　
as　in　Japan　

2。　Self…Perception　theory　
a）　Given　that　in　Western　culture；　people　are　quick　to　make　
dispositional　attributions　about　the　behavior　of　others；　it　
should　not　be　surprising　that　they　have　the　same　bias　
toward　themselves　

（i）　Internal　states　are　inferred　by　perceiving　how　one　is　
acting　now　and　recalling　how　one　was　active　in　a　
given　situation　in　the　past　
（ii）　Self…knowledge　allows　the　individual　to　reason　
backward　to　the　most　likely　causes　or　determinants　
of　behavior　
b）　Self…perception　theory　lacks　the　motivational　ponents　of　
dissonance　theory　

D。　pliance　
1。　Often　people　want　to　change　not　only　your　attitudes；　but　your　
behavior　so　that　you　ply　with　their　requests。　pliance　
techniques　include　the　following：　
2。　Reciprocity　
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a）　The　Reciprocity　Norm　states　that　when　someone　else　does　
something　for　you；　you　should　do　something　for　them　

b）　The　Door…in…the…Face　Technique　works　because　when　people　
say　“no”　to　a　large　request；　they　will　often　say　“yes”　to　a　
more　moderate　request；　it　arises　from　the　reciprocity　norm　

3。　mitment　
a）　The　mitment　principle　states　that　if　you　make　a　small　
mitment；　you　will　be　more　likely　to　mit　to　
something　larger　in　the　future　

b）　Use　of　the　mitment　strategy　in　pliance　attempts　is　
often　called　the　Foot…in…the…Door　Technique　

4。　Scarcity　
a）　The　scarcity　principle　states　that　people　dislike　feeling　that　
they　can’t　have　something；　thus；　people　desire　the　scare　
object　more　

b）　The　countdown　timer　on　home　shopping　networks　is　a　good　
example　of　the　scarcity　principle　in　action　

5。　Modeling　
a）　People　can　bring　about　pliance　and　behavior　change　by　
modeling　the　desired　behavior　

b）　This　technique　draws　on　the　principle　of　conformity　

IV。　Social　Relationships　
A。　Liking　
1。　People　tend　to　bee　attracted　to　people　with　whom　they　are　in　
close　proximity；　by　virtue　of　mere　exposure　
2。　Physical　attractiveness　often　plays　a　role　in　development　of　
friendships。　
3。　Similarity：　Individuals　similar　to　oneself　provide　a　sense　of　personal　
validation；　because　a　similar　individual　makes　one　feel　that　the　
attitudes　one　holds　dear　are　the　right　ones。　Conversely；　dissimilarity　
often　leads　to　strong　repulsion　
4。　Reciprocity：　As　individuals；　we　tend　to　like　other　individuals　who　
like　us。　
B。　Loving　
1。　In　most　cases；　we　first　liked　the　person　we　e　to　love　
2。　The　Experience　of　Love　
a）　Conceptualizations　of　love　cluster　into　three　dimensions：　

（i）　Passion：　sexual　passion　and　desire　
（ii）　Intimacy：　honesty　and　understanding　
（iii）　mitment：　devotion　and　sacrifice　
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b）　People’s　ability　to　sustain　loving　relationships　also　depends　
on　adult　attachment　style　

（iii）　Secure　attachment　（55　％）　
（iv）　Avoidant　attachment　（25　％）　
（v）　Anxious…ambivalent　attachment　（20　％）　
c）　Distinctions　between　types　of　love　in　relationships　as　they　
evolve　over　time：　

（i）　Passionate　love：　a　period　of　great　intensity　and　
absorption　
（ii）　passionate　love：　a　migration　toward　a　state　of　
lesser　intensity；　but　greater　intimacy　
3。　Factors　that　Allow　a　Relationship　to　Last　
a）　One　theory　suggests　that　having　a　feeling　that　the　“other”　is　
included　in　one’s　“self’　helps　relationships　last　

b）　The　Dependence　Model　suggests　that　likelihood　to　remain　
together　is　based　on　a　series　of　judgments：　

（i）　The　degree　to　which　intimacy；　sex；　emotional　
involvement；　panionship；　and　intellectual　
involvement　are　important　in　the　individual’s　
relationship　
（ii）　The　degree　to　which　each　of　those　needs　is　satisfied　
in　the　relationship　
（iii）　For　each　need；　whether　there　is　anyone　other　than　
the　current　partner　with　whom　the　individual　has　an　
important　relationship　
（iv）　The　degree　to　which　each　need　is　satisfied　by　the　
alternative　relationship　
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DISCUSSION　QUESTIONS　

1。　While　colleges　have　historically　been　thought　of　as　centers　of　divergent　thought　and　
intellectual　freedom；　many　political　conservatives　feel　that　in　recent　years　many　colleges　and　
universities　have　bee　centers　of　“political　correctness”　and　liberal　intellectual　rigidity。　
While　these　people　may　be　overstating　the　case　somewhat；　certainly　there　are　many　
pressures　on　college　students　to　conform　to　certain　“norms”　that　exist　on　every　college　
campus。　These　norms　may　be　more　social　than　political；　but　they　still　exist。　You　might　
explore　with　your　students　what　pressures　they　have　felt　to　conform　while　in　college；　in　
terms　of　political　thought；　dress　norms；　social　mores；　and　social　attitudes。　Depending　on　
where　your　class　is　taught；　this　could　turn　into　a　very　interesting　discussion。　（From　Koss）　
2。　In　discussing　Milgram’s　studies　with　your　class；　you　might　want　to　discuss　the　sociological　
implications。　Do　students　believe　that　people’s　willingness　to　obey　an　authority　figure　in　
Milgram’s　studies　is　linked　to　why　national　populations　will　sometimes　willingly　follow　
tyrants　like　Adolf　Hitler？　Are　the　factors　that　led　to　Milgram’s　results　the　same　ones　that　lead　
to　phenomena　such　as　groupthink　and　risky　shift？　Does　the　fact　that　most　Americans　believe　
an　Adolf　Hitler　could　never　do　here　what　he　did　in　Germany　actually　make　us　more　
vulnerable　to　a　Hitler…type　if　he　should　ever　e　along？　What　are　some　ways　that　people　
might　inoculate　themselves　from　these　effects？　
An　elderly　man　suffered　a　severe　viral　infection。　Manifestations　of　the　infection　included　
large　blisters　on　his　back；　severe　muscle　and　joint　pain；　and　a　conitant　depressive　
episode。　After　three　months；　the　man　recovered　pletely。　During　his　final　visit　to　his　
physician；　as　he　was　being　given　a　clean　bill　of　health；　the　physician　remarked　that　his　
recovery　was　“remarkable　for　a　man　your　age。”　The　physician　went　on　to　say　that　because　of　
the　severity　of　the　virus；　“some　people　just　never　get　over　the　symptoms。”　Before　this　visit；　
the　man　had　been　free　of　pain；　his　depression　was　lifting；　and　he　was　gradually　resuming　his　
usual　level　of　activity。　Within　two　weeks；　the　man　slipped　back　into　his　sick…role　behavior　of　
sitting　in　his　chair　all　day　in　front　of　the　television。　He　began　telling　everyone　he　met　how　ill　
he　was；　and　became　convinced　that　he　would　“never　get　any　better。”　Discuss　with　the　class　
the　psychological　mechanisms　at　work　with　this　man’s　“illness”　and　the　ments　made　by　
his　physician　on　that　last　visit。　

4。　What　would　be　the　consequences　of　a　race　of　people　who　were　not　“social　animals；”　who　
were　shy　and　fearful　of　all　people　and　preferred　to　be　in　isolation？　
5。　Should　parents　of　seventh　and　eighth　graders　try　to　help　their　children　resist　the　norms　of　a　
peer…group　drug　culture？　If　so；　how？　What　other　adolescent；　and　adult；　behaviors　are　
subject　to　peer　influence？　Is　this　influence　harmful　or　not？　6。　What　activities　would　
you　arrange　for　your　children　if　you　wanted　them　to　be　very　social；　outgoing　extroverts；　or　
the　opposite；　social　introverts？　
6。　Ask　the　class　how　they　might　use　the　cognitive　dissonance　principle　that　“changing　behavior　
changes　attitudes”　to　design　programs　for：　
。　Increasing　a　person’s　low　self…esteem　
。　Modifying　a　deprecatory　attitude　toward　student　protesters　
。　Decreasing　a　racial　prejudice　in　schoolchildren　
Now　reverse　the　process　and　design　new　programs　using　the　principle　that　“changing　
attitudes　changes　behaviors”　for　the　same　problems。　Which　principle　do　you　think　the　class　
will　be　more　successful　using？　Why？　

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SUPPLEMENTAL　LECTURE　MATERIAL　

Cognitive　Dissonance　

A　high　school　girl　believed　the　use　of　drugs　to　be　physically　harmful　and　morally　wrong。　She　
was　invited　to　a　party　given　by　a　group　from　her　class　that　she　admired。　Other　people　at　the　
party　were　using　cocaine　and　drinking　wine　and；　because　she　wanted　to　be　accepted　by　the　
group；　she　decided　she　should　do　what　the　others　were　doing。　The　next　day　she　was　tense　and　
unfortable　because　she　had　done　something　that　she　believed　to　be　wrong。　She　was　suffering　
from　cognitive　dissonance。　

The　theory　of　cognitive　dissonance　was　proposed　in　the　1950s　by　psychologist　Leon　Festinger。　It　
is　a　very　simple　theory；　but　one　applicable　to　an　enormous　range　of　situations。　Cognitive　
dissonance　is　defined　as　a　state　of　tension　that　exists　when　two　（or　more）　cognitions　are　
psychologically　inconsistent；　with　that　inconsistency　creating　tension。　Festinger　considered　
tension　motivating　because　when　tension　occurs；　there　is　a　motive　to　reduce　or　eliminate　it。　
“Cognition”　is　a　broad　term　that　includes　perception；　reasoning；　beliefs；　values；　and　attitudes…any　
form　of　knowledge　or　knowing。　“Psychologically　inconsistent”　means　that　the　individual　
possessing　the　cognitions　perceives　them　to　be　inpatible　or　in　conflict。　This　is　the　Achilles　
heel　of　the　theory；　because　psychological　inconsistency　is　subjective；　it　cannot　be　directly　
observed　and　measured。　

Dissonance　sometimes　occurs　after　making　a　decision　that　is　irrevocable；　or　that　would　be　very　
difficult　to　reverse。　Suppose　a　high　school　senior　has　narrowed　his　choice　of　colleges　to　two；　both　
equally　attractive。　He　has　to　make　a　decision　and　choose　one　of　the　schools。　When　he　chooses　
one；　he　has　to　give　up　the　things　he　likes　about　the　other。　What　are　the　dissonant　cognitions？　I　
chose　school　A；　therefore　I　have　to　give　up　all　things　I　liked　about　school　B。　What　does　he　do　to　
reduce　the　dissonance？　He　accentuates　the　positive　aspects　of　school　A　and　the　negative　aspects　
of　school　B。　He　may　decide　that　the　things　he　liked　about　school　B　are　not　really　important。　

Two　students　have　identical　new　cars。　One　student’s　car　was　a　gift　f