心理学与生活-第90章
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Additionally; since the way we behave toward the person can affect the way he or she behaves
toward us; our first impression may cause us to behave in ways that almost guarantee a response
that fits our first impression。 This results in a “self…fulfilling prophecy” which makes it unlikely
that we will ever significantly change our impression of the person。
It is for these reasons that making a good first impression; or at least a neutral first impression;
can be so important。 In a situation such as a job interview; in which you may have only 20 or 30
minutes to interact with the interviewer; there is usually not enough time to overe a negative
first impression。 Recruiters have told me that something as simple as the way an interviewee
shakes his or her hands can sometimes leave a lasting impression that positively or negatively
affects the remainder of the interview。
After reviewing the power of first impressions; you might want to have students generate ways
they can pursue self…enhancement and other…enhancement strategies in order to try and create as
positive a first impression as possible。
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES
Solomon Asch (1907 —1996)
Solomon Asch obtained his Ph。D。 at Columbia University in 1932。 He subsequently taught at the
New School for Social Research in New York City and at Rutgers University。 Asch’s research and
conceptual orientation in social psychology were influenced strongly by the Gestalt school;
particularly as represented in the writings of his close friend; Max Wertheimer。 Asch is best
known for his pioneering research on conformity and the effects of group pressure on the
behavior of the individual。 Among his major works is the classic text Social Psychology; published
in 1952。
Leon Festinger (b。 1919)
Born in New York City; Festinger obtained both his M。A。 and Ph。D。 at the State University of
Iowa。 He taught at various schools; including Iowa; Rochester; MIT; the University of Minnesota;
and Stanford University。 In 1968; he joined the New School for Social Research in New York City。
Believing that humans are thinking animals desiring to bring order to life; Festinger argued that
people often make special efforts to reduce cognitive inconsistencies。 His theory of cognitive
dissonance; proposed in 1957; was of immense influence in social psychology; inspiring volumes
of research during the 1950s and 1960s。
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CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS
Kurt Lewin (1890—1947)
Kurt Lewin grew up in prewar Germany in an era that produced a number of prominent and
revolutionary psychologists。 Best known for his field theory of psychology; which attempts to
explain human behavior in terms of the interrelations of environmental and psychological
elements acting on the individual; Lewin has contributed a body of thought that has had a great
impact on such disciplines as social psychology; industrial psychology; and personality theory。
Lewin was born in a small village in the Prussian province of Posen in 1890。 His father owned a
large general store there and maintained his family in relative fort。 In order to expand his
business; Herr Lewin moved his wife and four children to Berlin in 1905; where Kurt pleted
his secondary education。 Lewin entered the University of Freiburg; intent on studying medicine;
but; within a short time; he discovered that the field held little interest for him。 He underwent a
period of vacillation; during which he struggled to decide the direction in which he should
channel his considerable energies。 His search led him first to transfer to the University of Munich
and then back to Berlin; where he eventually took his basic degree in psychology and embarked
on a course of graduate study in that discipline。 At this time; Lewin came under the tutelage of
Professor Carl Stumpf; a prominent experimental psychologist; who advised and encouraged
him in his research。
Just as he pleted his requirements for a Ph。D。 in 1914; Lewin was conscripted into the
German army as an infantryman。 He served in the military for the next four years; so
distinguishing himself that he rose from private to lieutenant in a short time。 At the close of the
war; Lewin returned to the University of Berlin as both instructor and research assistant in the
Psychological Institute。 He rapidly gained a reputation as a superb lecturer in the classroom and
an excellent supervisor in the laboratory。
Of particular importance to the development of Lewin’s thought at this time was the alliance he
formed with two of his colleagues at the university; Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Kohler。
These two had participated in the founding of Gestalt psychology and; while Lewin never
became a Gestalt psychologist; the connection between that approach and Lewin’s field theory
approach is immediately apparent。 Eventually Lewin was appointed full professor at the
university; where he and his graduate students generated numerous insightful research papers。
As Lewin’s prominence in the German academic world continued to grow; so too did the power
of the Nazi Party。 Lewin was spending a year as visiting professor at Stanford University when it
became apparent that Hitler’s control of Germany was inevitable。 He hurriedly returned to
Germany to settle his affairs and then reentered the United States; where he lived until his death。
His career in America was varied and productive。 He taught child psychology at Cornell
University from 1933 to 1935; then accepted an appointment to the State University of Iowa as
professor of psychology in the Child Welfare Station。 Lewin’s last academic position was as
professor and director of the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology。 Concurrently; he acted as director of the mission of Interrelations of the
American Jewish Congress; which engaged in research on munity problems。 While the
influence of Lewin’s work has spread widely over the last three decades; the work in group
dynamics carried on by the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the University of Michigan
most closely follows the theories Lewin proposed。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
TIMELINE
Year Event
1908 William McDougall published An Introduction to Social Psychology; one of the
earliest books on the subject。
19141918
World War I was fought。
1924 Floyd Allport published Social Psychology; the first college text for this area of
psychology。
1929 The Great Depression began in America。
1936 Muzafer Sherif conducted his important autokinetic studies involving social
influence。
19391945
World War II was fought。
1944 Kurt Lewin established the Research Center for Group Dynamics at MIT。
19501953
The Korean War was fought。
1957 Leon Festinger published the theory of cognitive dissonance。
1964 The stabbing of Kitty Genovese in Queens; New York; resulted in public
outrage at the perceived apathy of the bystanders。
1967 Harold Kelley’s analysis started researchers working on attributional
analyses of social behavior。
1968 Bibb Latane and John Darley published their research on the bystander
effect。
1969 The first human landing on the moon occurred。
1971 Philip Zimbardo; Craig Haney; and Curt Banks conducted the Stanford
prison study; in which college students were randomly assigned to play the
roles of prisoners and guards in a mock prison。
1974 Stanley Milgram published Obedience to Authority; outlining the methods;
findings; and significance of his obedience research。
1975 E。 O。 Wilson published Sociobiology: The New Synthesis; describing the
application of genetics to the study of social behavior。
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CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
Aronson; E。 (1994)。 The Social Animal; 7th Ed。 New York: W。 H。 Freeman。 A narrative approach to
social psychology。 This classic presents theory and research in an interesting and very
relevant manner。 Topics covered include prejudice; propaganda; war; alienation; aggression;
unrest; and political upheaval。
Carkenord; D。 M。 & Bullington; J。 (1993)。 Bringing Cognitive Dissonance to the Classroom。 Teaching of
Psychology; 20(l); 41…43。 Provides a sample handout for use during lectures on cognitive
dissonance; the handout enables students to see the areas of dissonance in their own lives。
Cialdini; R。 B。 (1988)。 Influence: Science and Practice; 2nd Ed。 Glenview; IL: Scott; Foresman。 A lively
account of theory and research in the area of social influence; contains many real…world
illustrations。
Cialdini; R。; & Trost; M。 (1998)。 Social Influence。 Social Norms; Conformity and pliance。 In The
Handbook of Social Psychology; Vol。 2; 4th Ed。; 151…192。 A prehensive review of research on
social norms; conformity; and pliance organized around three goals of behavior。 The
goals are to behave effectively; to build and maintain relationships and to manage self…
concept。
Deaux; K。; & Wrightsman; L。 (1988)。 Social Psychology; 5th Ed。 Pacific Grove; CA: Brooks/Cole。 A
basic text with wide coverage。 Research…oriented; with emphasis on applications of social
psychology。
Evans; R。 (1980)。 The Making of Social Psychology Discussions with Creative Contributors。 New York:
Gardner Press。 A collection of Evans’ discussions with nineteen significant contributors to the
field of social psychology; and is an excellent reference for both biographical and historical
material。
Festinger; L。 (1957)。 A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance。 Evanston; IL: Row; Peterson。 A classic text in
social psychology。 Explores the relationship between thoughts; feelings; and behavior; and
shows that inconsistent cognitions can lead to changes in attitudes and behavior。
Lewin; K。 (1951)。 Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers。 Edited by Dorwin
Cartwright。 New York: Harpers。 A classic text by the founder of the discipline of social
psychology。
Reber; A。 S。 (1985)。 The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology。 London: The Penguin Group。 A concise;
cogent dictionary of even the most obscure psychological terms。
Rosenthal; R。; & Jacobson; L。 (1968)。 Pygmalion in the Classroom: Teacher Expectations and Intellectual
Development。 New York: Holt; Rinehart & Winston。 Classic study of the self…fulfilling
prophecy process and its application in the classroom。
Ross; L。; & Nisbett; R。 (1991)。 The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology。 New
York: McGraw…Hill。 An excellent summary and review of the field of social psychology by
two leading researchers。 Presents the plex and often contradictory findings of social
psychology in a manner easily understood by all。
Tesser; A。 (1995)。 Advanced Social Psychology。 New York: McGraw…Hill。 An excellent introduction
to the field of social psychology。 Individual chapters are written by leading researchers in
different areas of social psychology。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
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CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS
DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 17: SEX AND GENDER
Overview
The ways in which males and females are similar and different; and h