cyprus, as i saw it in 1879-第62章

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fees　on　transfer　by　sale。

In　transferring　by　sale　the　fees　are　1　per　cent。　on　the　value；　if　this
freehold　property　is　a　real　one　（Emlaki　Serfi）；　and　3　per　cent。　if　it　is
vacouf　freehold　property　（Emlak　Meocoofi）。　Besides　this　3　piastres　as
price　of　paper；　and　1　piastre　as　clerks'　fees　（Riataki）　are　paid　for
every　new　Kotshan。

The　lands　（Arazi）　pay　5　per　cent。　indifferently　on　transfer　by　sale　and
on　transfer　by　succession。

The　custom　is　to　value　lands　at　one　year's　rental；　or　value　of　products。

If　a　house　is　occupied　by　the　owner　no　tax　on　rental　is　demanded；　the
only　tax　demanded　in　that　case　being　that　on　the　proportionate　value。

The　proportionate　values　of　real　properties　are　not　assessed　for　a　fixed
period。　Therefore　the　value；　once　assessed；　can　remain　the　same　for　many
years；　or　it　can　be　altered　in　the　annual　inspections　of　the　Vakouat
Riatibs　according　to　an　increase　or　decrease　of　value　that　may　take
place　on　account　of　repairs；　a　general　rise　of　value；　or　partial　or
entire　destruction　by　fire；　rain；　&c。

The　poverty　of　the　agricultural　classes　was　so　generally　acknowledged
even　by　the　Turkish　administration　that　it　was　absolutely　necessary　to
relieve　them　by　some　external　assistance；　it　was　therefore　resolved　in
1869　to　create　an　〃Agricultural　Bank　and　a　Locust　Fund；〃　the　principles
of　this　establishment　are　sufficiently　original　to　attract　attention。

In　1871　the　Turkish　government　issued　a　decree　that　all　cultivators　of
the　ground　should　pay　to　the　authorities　a　sum　of　money　equal　to　the
price　of　one　kilo　of　wheat　and　one　of　barley　for　every　pair　of　oxen　in
their　possession；　in　order　to　create　a　capital　for　the　new　bank。　The
number　of　oxen　would　represent　the　scale　of　every　holding；　as　they　would
exhibit　the　proportion　of　ploughs　required　upon　the　farm；　and　thus　yield
an　approximate　estimate　of　the　area。

This　arbitrary　call　upon　the　resources　of　the　impoverished　farmers　was
an　eccentric　financial　operation　in　the　ostensible　cause　of　assistance；
but　it　produced　a　capital　of　169；028　piastres。　The　rate　of　interest　upon
loans　to　individuals；　or　for　particular　districts；　for　the　purpose　of
destroying　locusts　was　8　per　cent。　previous　to　the　year　1875；　and　was
increased　to　12　per　cent。　since　that　period。　Receipts　for　all　sums
borrowed　for　the　public　benefit　of　locust　destruction　were　signed　by　the
head…men　and　members　of　councils　of　villages。

At　first　sight　the　establishment　of　an　agricultural　bank　sounded
propitious　as　a　step　in　the　right　direction；　but；　according　to　the
conditions　of　all　loans；　it　became　usurious；　and　saddled　the　unfortunate
farmers　after　a　few　bad　seasons　with　debts　that　could　never　be　paid　off。
If　X　borrowed　1000　pounds；　he　received　only　880　pounds；　as　the　year's
interest　was　deducted　in　advance；　but　he　was　afterwards　charged　compound
interest　at　12　per　cent。　upon　the　whole　1000　pounds。　Compound　interest
at　12　per　cent。　means　speedy　ruin。

Upon　an　examination　of　the　accounts；　the　whole　affair　represents
apparently　large　figures　in　piastres；　which　when　reduced　to　pounds
sterling　presents　a　miserable　total　that　proves　the　failure　of　the
enterprise。　As　I　have　already　stated；　a　〃bank〃　could　not　succeed　in
Cyprus　if　it　were　established　specially　to　benefit　the　agriculturist；
money　can　always　command　10　per　cent。；　while　the　farmer　should　obtain
the　loans　necessary　for　irrigation　at　a　maximum　of　6　per　cent。　if　he　is
really　to　be　encouraged。　This　can　only　be　accomplished　through　a
Government　or　National　Bank；　expressly　organised　for　the　purpose　of
developing　the　agricultural　interests。　As　the　government　can　obtain　any
amount　at　4　per　cent。；　the　National　Bank　could　well　afford　to　lend　at　6；
especially　as　the　loan　would　be　secured　by　a　first　mortgage；　to　take
precedence　of　all　other　claims　upon　the　property。

The　〃Locust　Fund〃　was　an　admirable　institution　which　has　achieved　great
results。　There　can　be　little　doubt　that　throughout　the　world's　history
man　has　exhibited　a　lamentable　apathy　in　his　passive　submission　to　the
depredations　of　the　insect　tribe；　whereas　by　a　system　of　organisation　he
would　at　the　least　have　mitigated　the　scourge　which　has　in　many
instances　resulted　in　absolute　famine。　At　one　time　the　plague　of　locusts
was　annually　expected　in　Cyprus　as　a　natural　advent　like　the　arrival　of
swallows　in　the　usual　season；　and　when　the　swarms　were　extreme　the　crops
were　devoured　throughout　the　island；　and　swept　completely　from　the
surface；　entailing　general　ruin。　The　cultivation　of　cotton；　which　should
be　one　of　the　most　important　industries；　has　been　much　restricted　from
the　fear　of　locusts；　as　they　appear　in　May；　when　the　tender　young　plants
are　a　few　inches　above　the　ground　and　are　the　first　objects　of　attack。

It　is　related　that　when　under　the　Venetians；　Cyprus　annually　exported
30；000　bales　or　6；600；000　lbs。　of　cotton。　In　1877　the　consular　reports
estimated　the　entire　produce　of　the　island　at　2000　bales　of　200　okes　per
bale；　or　1；100；000　lbs。；　equal　to　only　one…sixth　of　the　original
Venetian　export。

The　steps　taken　to　destroy　the　locusts　have　so　far　diminished　their
numbers　that　in　certain　districts　the　production　of　cotton　might　be
largely　extended。　M。　Mattei；　and　Said　Pacha　when　governor　of　Cyprus；
combined　to　make　war　upon　the　locust　swarms　by　means　of　a　simple　but
effective　method；　which　will　render　their　names　historical　as　the
greatest　benefactors　in　an　island　that　has　seldom　known　aught　but
oppressors。

The　idea　originated　with　Signor　Richard　Mattei；　who　is　the　largest
landed　proprietor　in　Cyprus。　It　is　much　to　be　regretted　that
professional　entomologists　can　seldom　assist　us　in　the　eradication　of
insect　plagues；　they　can　explain　their　habits；　but　they　are　useless　as
allies　against　their　attacks。　M。　Mattei　had　observed　that　the　young
locusts　invariably　marched　straight　ahead；　and　turned　neither　to　the
right　or　left；　he　had　also　remarked　that　upon　arrival　at　an　obstacle
they　would　endeavour　to　climb　over；　instead　of　going　round　it。　Under
these　peculiarities　of　natural　instinct　a　very　simple　arrangement
sufficed　to　lead　them　to　destruction。　Pits　were　dug　about　three　or　four
feet　deep　at　right　angles　with　the　line　of　march；　and　screens　of　cotton
cloth　edged　at　the　bottom　with　oil…skin　were　arranged　something　after
the　fashion　of　stop…nets　for　ground　game　in　covert…shooting　in　England。
This　wall；　with　a　slippery　groundwork；　prevented　the　insects　from
proceeding。　As　they　never　turn　back；　they　were　obliged　to　search
sideways　for　a　passage；　and　were　thus　led　into　the　pits　in　millions；
where　they　were　destroyed　by　burying　the　masses　beneath　heaps　of　earth。
If　a　few　gallons　of　petroleum　were　sprinkled　over　them；　and　fire
applied；　much　trouble　would　be　saved。　This　is　a　crude　method　of　insect
destruction　which　could　be　improved　upon；　but　great　praise　is　due　to　the
efforts　of　M。　Richard　Mattei　and　Said　Pacha　for　having　devoted　their
energies　so　successfully　to　the　eradication　of　a　scourge　which　proved
its　ancient　importance　from　the　Biblical　registration　of　a　curse　upon
the　Egyptians。

There　is　a　reward　given　by　government　for　the　destruction　of　locust
eggs。　Each　female　deposits　two　small　cases　or　sheaths　beneath　the
ground；　containing　thirty　or　forty　eggs　in　each。　The　position　is　easily
distinguished　by　a　shining　slimy　substance。　A　certain　sum　per　oke　is
given；　and　the　people　gladly　avail　themselves　of　the　opportunity　of
earning　money　at　the　same　time　that　they　destroy　the　common　enemy。

The　British　administration　is　keenly　alive　to　the　importance　of　this
warfare；　and　I　have　frequently　met　commissioners　of　districts　galloping
in　hot　haste；　as　though　in　pursuit　of　a　retreating　enemy；　towards　some
quarter　where　the　appearance　of　locust　swarms　may　have　been　reported；　in
order　to　take　immediate　measures　for　their　destruction。

Unfortunately　the　locust　is　not　the　only　enemy　of　cotton　cultivation；
but　the　（to　my　mind）　abominable　system　of　dimes；　or　tenths　of　produce　to
be　valued　while　growing；　restricts　the　cultivator　to　an　inferior　variety
that　will　remain　within　the　pod；　instead　of　expanding　when　liberated　by
ripening。

The　cultivation　of　cotton　differs　according　to　the　many　varieties　of　the
plant。　Pliny　described　the　〃wool…bearing　trees　of　Ethiopia；〃　and　I　have
myself　seen　the　indigenous　cotton　thriving　in　a　wild　state　in　those
parts　from　whence　they　were　first　introduced　to　Egypt；　during　the　reign
of　Mehemet　Ali；　grandfather　of　the　Khedive。　It　is　well　known　that
although　comparatively　a　recent　article　of　cultivation　in　Egypt；　it　has
become　one　of　the　most　important　exports　from　that　country。　Cotton　of
the　first　quality　requires　a　peculiar　combination　of　local　conditions。
Water　must　be　at　command　whenever　required　during　the　various　stages　of
cultivation；　and　perfectly　dry　weather　must　be　assured　when　the　crop　is
ripe　and　fit　to　gather。　The　collection　extends　over　many　days；　as　the
pods　do　not　burst　at　the　same　period。　Some　of　the　most　valuable　kinds
detach　easily　from　the　expanded　husk　and　fall　quickly　to　the　ground；
which　entails　constant　attention；　and　the　quality　would　deteriorate
unless　labour　is　always　at　hand　to　gather　the　cotton　before　it　shall
fall　naturally　from　the　plant。

It　will　be　therefore　understood　that；　although　many　soils　may　be　highly
favourable　to　the　growth　of　fine　qualities　of　cotton；　there　is　an
absolute　necessity　for　a　combination　of　a　peculiar　climate；　where
neither　rain　nor　dew　shall　moisten；　and　accordingly　deteriorate　the
crop。　Egypt　is　specially　favoured　for　the　production　of　first…class
cotton；　as　in　the　upper　portions　of　the　Delta　rain　is　seldom　known；　but
the　extreme　carelessness　of　the　people　has　reduced　the　average　quality
by　mixing　the　seeds；　instead　of　keeping　the　various　classes　rigidly
separate。

The　dry　climate；　combined　with　the　fertile　soil　of　Cyprus；　would　suggest
a　great　extension　of　cotton　cultivation；　when　artificial　irrigation
shall　be　generally　developed；　but　so　long　as　the　present　system　of
collecting　the　dimes　is　continued；　the　farmer　cannot　produce　the　higher
qualities　which　require　immediate　attention　in　collecting。　During　the
delay　in　waiting　for　the　official　valuer；　the　pods　are　bursting　rapidly；
and　the　valuable　quality　is　falling　to　the　ground；　the　cultivator　is
therefore　confined　to　the　growth　of　those　inferior　cottons　that　will
adhere　to　the　pods；　and　wait　patiently　for　the　arrival　of　the　government
authority。

Consul　Hamilton　Lang；　in　his　interesting　work　upon　Cyprus；　suggests　that
the　duty　should　be　collected　upon　export；　to　relieve　the　farmer　from　the
present　difficulty；　which　would　enable　him　to　cultivate　the　American
high　qualities。　It　is　almost　amusing　to　contrast　the　criticisms　and
advice　of　the　various　British　consuls　who　have　for　many　years
represented　us　in　Cyprus　with　the　ideas　of　modern　officials。　There　can
be　no　doubt　concerning　consular　reports　in　black　and　white；　and　equally
there　can　be　no　question　of　existing　ordinances　under　the　British
administration；　but　what　appeared　highly　unjust　to　our　consuls　when
Cyprus　was　under　Turkish　rule；　is　accepted　as　perfectly　equitable　now
that　the　island　has　passed　into　the　hands　of　Great　Britain。

For　many　years　I　have　taken　a