lect08-第1章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！







Lecture　VIII





The　Growth　and　Diffusion　of　Primitive　Ideas









　　　　Mr　Tylor　has　justly　observed　that　the　true　lesson　of　the　new


science　of　Comparative　Mythology　is　the　barrenness　in　primitive


times　of　the　faculty　which　we　most　associate　with　mental


fertility；　the　Imagination。　Comparative　Jurisprudence；　as　might


be　expected　from　the　natural　stability　of　law　and　custom；　yet


more　strongly　suggests　the　same　inference；　and　points　to　the


fewness　of　ideas　and　the　slowness　of　additions　to　the　mental


stock　as　among　the　most　general　characteristics　of　mankind　in　its


infancy。


　　　　The　fact　that　the　generation　of　new　ideas　does　not　proceed　in


all　states　of　society　as　rapidly　as　in　that　to　which　we　belong；


is　only　not　familiar　to　us　through　our　inveterate　habit　of


confining　our　observation　of　human　nature　to　a　small　portion　of


its　phenomena。　When　we　undertake　to　examine　it；　we　are　very　apt


to　look　exclusively　at　a　part　of　Western　Europe　and　perhaps　of


the　American　Continent。　We　constantly　leave　aside　India；　China；


and　the　whole　Mahometan　East。　This　limitation　of　our　field　of


vision　is　perfectly　justifiable　when　we　are　occupied　with　the


investigation　of　the　laws　of　Progress。　Progress　is；　in　fact；　the


same　thing　as　the　continued　production　of　new　ideas；　and　we　can


only　discover　the　law　of　this　production　by　examining　sequences


of　ideas　where　they　are　frequent　and　of　considerable　length。　But


the　primitive　condition　of　the　progressive　societies　is　best


ascertained　from　the　observable　condition　of　those　which　are


non…progressive；　and　thus　we　leave　a　serious　gap　in　our　knowledge


when　we　put　aside　the　mental　state　of　the　millions　upon　millions


of　men　who　fill　what　we　vaguely　call　the　East　as　a　phenomenon　of


little　interest　and　of　no　instructiveness。　The　fact　is　not


unknown　to　most　of　us　that；　among　these　multitudes；　Literature；


Religion；　and　Art　　or　what　corresponds　to　them　　move　always


within　a　distinctly　drawn　circle　of　unchanging　notions；　but　the


fact　that　this　condition　of　thought　is　rather　the　infancy　of　the


human　mind　prolonged　than　a　different　maturity　from　that　most


familiar　to　us；　is　very　seldom　brought　home　to　us　with　a


clearness　rendering　it　fruitful　of　instruction。


　　　　I　do　not；　indeed；　deny　that　the　difference　between　the　East


and　the　West；　in　respect　of　the　different　speed　at　which　new


ideas　are　produced；　is　only　a　difference　of　degree。　There　were


new　ideas　produced　in　India　even　during　the　disastrous　period


just　before　the　English　entered　it；　and　in　the　earlier　ages　this


production　must　have　been　rapid。　There　must　have　been　a　series　of


ages　during　which　the　progress　of　China　was　very　steadily


maintained；　and　doubtless　our　assumption　of　the　absolute


immobility　of　the　Chinese　and　other　societies　is　in　part　the


expression　of　our　ignorance。　Conversely；　I　question　whether　new


ideas　come　into　being　in　the　West　as　rapidly　as　modern　literature


and　conversation　sometimes　suggest。　It　cannot；　indeed；　be　doubted


that　causes；　unknown　to　the　ancient　world；　lead　among　us　to　the


multiplication　of　ideas。　Among　them　are　the　never　ceasing


discovery　of　new　facts　of　nature；　inventions　changing　the


circumstances　and　material　conditions　of　life；　and　new　rules　of


social　conduct；　the　chief　of　this　last　class；　and　certainly　the


most　powerful　in　the　domain　of　law　proper；　I　take　to　be　the


famous　maxim　that　all　institutions　should　be　adapted　to　produce


the　greatest　happiness　of　the　greatest　number。　Nevertheless；


there　are　not　a　few　signs　that　even　conscious　efforts　to　increase


the　number　of　ideas　have　a　very　limited　success。　Look　at　Poetry


and　Fiction。　From　time　to　time　one　mind　endowed　with　the


assemblage　of　qualities　called　genius　makes　a　great　and　sudden


addition　to　the　combinations　of　thought；　word；　and　sound　which　it


is　the　province　of　those　arts　to　produce；　yet　as　suddenly；　after


one　or　a　few　such　efforts；　the　productive　activity　of　both


branches　of　invention　ceases；　and　they　settle　down　into


imitativeness　for　perhaps　a　century　at　a　time。　An　humbler　example


may　be　sought　in　rules　of　social　habit。　We　speak　of　the　caprices


of　Fashion；　yet；　on　examining　them　historically；　we　find　them


singularly　limited；　so　much　so；　that　we　are　sometimes　tempted　to


regard　Fashion　as　passing　through　cycles　of　form　ever　repeating


themselves。　There　are；　in　fact；　more　natural　limitations　on　the


fertility　of　intellect　than　we　always　admit　to　ourselves；　and


these；　reflected　in　bodies　of　men；　translate　themselves　into　that


weariness　of　novelty　which　seems　at　intervals　to　overtake　whole


Western　societies；　including　minds　of　every　degree　of　information


and　cultivation。


　　　　My　present　object　is　to　point　out　some　of　the　results　of


mental　sterility　at　a　time　when　society　is　in　the　stage　which　we


have　been　considering。　Then；　the　relations　between　man　and　man


were　summed　up　in　kinship。　The　fundamental　assumption　was　that


all　men；　not　united　with　you　by　blood；　were　your　enemies　or　your


slaves。　Gradually　the　assumption　became　untrue　in　fact；　and　men；


who　were　not　blood　relatives；　became　related　to　one　another　on


terms　of　peace　and　mutual　tolerance　or　mutual　advantage　Yet　no


new　ideas　came　into　being　exactly　harmonising　with　the　new


relation；　nor　was　any　new　phraseology　invented　to　express　it。　The


new　member　of　each　group　was　spoken　of　as　akin　to　it；　was　treated


as　akin　to　it；　was　thought　of　as　akin　to　it。　So　little　were　ideas


changed　that；　as　we　shall　see；　the　very　affections　and　emotions


which　the　natural　bond　evoked　were　called　forth　in　extraordinary


strength　by　the　artificial　tie。　The　clear　apprehension　of　these


facts　throws　light　on　several　historical　problems；　and　among　them


on　some　of　Irish　history。　Yet　they　ought　not　greatly　to　surprise


us；　since；　in　a　modified　form；　they　make　part　of　our　everyday


experience。　Almost　everybody　can　observe　that；　when　new


circumstances　arise；　we　use　our　old　ideas　to　bring　them　home　to


us；　it　is　only　afterwards；　and　sometimes　long　afterwards；　that


our　ideas　are　found　to　have　changed。　An　English　Court　of　Justice


is　in　great　part　an　engine　for　working　out　this　process。　New


combinations　of　circumstance　are　constantly　arising；　but　in　the


first　instance　they　are　exclusively　interpreted　according　to　old


legal　ideas。　A　little　later　lawyers　admit　that　the　old　ideas　are


not　quite　what　they　were　before　the　new　circumstances　arose。


　　　　The　slow　generation　of　ideas　in　ancient　times　may　first　be


adduced　as　necessary　to　the　explanation　of　that　great　family　of


Fictions　which　meet　us　on　the　threshold　of　history　and　historical


jurisprudence。　Specimens　of　these　fictions　may　be　collected　on


all　sides　from　bodies　of　archaic　custom　or　rudimentary　systems　of


law；　but　those　most　to　our　present　purpose　are　fictitious


assumptions　of　blood…relationship。　Elsewhere　I　have　pointed　out


the　strange　conflict　between　belief　or　theory　and　what　seems　to


us　notorious　fact；　which　is　observable　in　early　Roman　and


Hellenic　society。　'It　may　be　affirmed　of　early　commonwealths　that


their　citizens　considered　all　the　groups　in　which　they　claimed


membership　to　be　founded　on　common　lineage。　What　was　obviously


true　of　the　Family　was　believed　to　be　true　first　of　the　House；


next　of　the　Tribe；　lastly　of　the　State。　And　yet　we　find　that；


along　with　this　belief；　each　community　preserved　records　or


traditions　which　distinctly　showed　that　the　fundamental


assumption　was　false。　Whether　we　look　to　the　Greek　States；　or　to


Rome；　or　to　the　Teutonic　aristocracies　in　Ditmarsh　which


furnished　Niebuhr　with　so　many　valuable　illustrations；　or　to　the


Celtic　clan　associations；　or　to　that　strange　social　organisation


of　the　Sclavonic　Russians　and　Poles　which　has　only　lately


attracted　notice；　everywhere　we　discover　traces　of　passages　in


their　history　when　men　of　alien　descent　were　admitted　to；　and


amalgamated　with；　the　original　brotherhood。　Adverting　to　Rome


singly；　we　perceive　that　the　primary　group；　the　Family；　was　being


constantly　adulterated　by　the　practice　of　adoption；　while　stories


seem　to　have　been　always　current　respecting　the　exotic　extraction


of　one　of　the　original　Tribes；　and　concerning　a　large　addition　to


the　Houses　made　by　one　of　the　early　Kings。　The　composition　of　the


State　uniformly　assumed　to　be　natural　was　nevertheless　known　to


be　in　great　measure　artificial。'　（Ancient　Law；　pp。　129；　130。）　The


key　to　these　singular　phenomena　has　been　recently　sought　in　the


ancient　religions；　and　has　been　supposed　to　be　found　in　the


alleged　universal　practice　of　worshipping　dead　ancestors。　Very


striking　illustrations　of　them　are；　however；　supplied　by　the　law


and　usage　of　Ireland　after　it　had　been　Christianised　for


centuries；　and　long　after　any　Eponymous　progenitor　can　be


conceived　as　worshipped　。　The　Family；　House；　and　Tribe　of　the


Romans　　and；　so　far　as　my　knowledge　extends；　all　the　analogous


divisions　of　Greek　communities　　were　distinguished　by　separate


special　names。　But　in　the　Brehon　Law；　the　same　word；　Fine　（or


'family'）；　is　used　for　the　Family　as　we　ordinarily　understand　it


　that　is；　for　the　children　of　a　living　parent　and　their


descendants　　for　the　Sept　or；　in　phrase　of　Indian　law；　the


Joint　Undivided　Family；　that　is；　the　combined　descendants　of　an


ancestor　long　since　dead　　for　the　Tribe；　which　was　the


political　unit　of　ancient　Ireland；　and　even　for　the　large　Tribes


in　which　the　smaller　units　were　sometimes　absorbed。　Nevertheless


the　Irish　Family　undoubtedly　received　additions　through　Adoption。


The　Sept；　or　larger　group　of　kindred；　had　a　definite　place　for


strangers　admitted　to　it　on　stated　conditions；　the　Fine　Taccair。


The　Tribe　avowedly　included　a　number　of　persons；　mostly　refugees


from　other　Tribes；　whose　only　connection　with　it　was　common


allegiance　to　its　Chief。　Moreover　the　Tribe　in　its　largest


extension　and　considered　a　political　as　well　as　a　social　unit


might　have　been　absorbed　with　others　in　a　Great　or　Arch　Tribe；


and　here　the　sole　source　of　the　kinship　still　theoretically


maintained　is　Conquest。　Yet　all　these　groups　were　in　some　sense


or　other　Families。


　　　　Nor　does　the　artificiality　solely　consist　in　the　extension　of


the　sphere　of　kinship　to　classes　known　to　have　been　originally


alien　to　the　true　brotherhood。　An　even　more　interesting　example


of　it　presents　itself　when　the　ideas　of　kinship　and　the


phraseology　proper　to　consanguinity　are　extended　to　associations


which　we　should　now　contemplate　as　exclusively　founded　on


contract；　such　as　partnerships　and　guilds。　There　are　no　more


interesting　pages　in　Dr　Sullivan's　Introduction　（pp。　ccvi　et


seq。）　than　those　in　which　he　discus