lecture v-第1章

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Modern　Customs　and　Ancient　Laws　of　Russia

by　Maxime　Kovalevsky

1891




Lecture　5。

Old　Russian　Parliaments。

　　　　In　our　last　lecture　we　showed　what　causes　produced　the　rise
of　monarchical　power　in　Russia；　and　tried　to　prove　that；　powerful
as　was　the　autocracy　of　the　Czars　of　Moscovy；　it　was　limited　by
the　political　rights　of　the　higher　nobility。　The　exercise　of
these　rights　was　entrusted　to　the　Douma　or　Council；　and　similar
powers　in　matters　ecclesiastical　were　vested　in　a　High
Commission；　often　mentioned　by　the　authors　of　the　time　under　the
name　of　the　consecrated　Sobor。　This　body　was　composed　of　the
Metropolitan；　Archbishops；　Bishops；　Archimandrites　or　vicars　of
the　bishops；　and　the　heads　of　the　black　clergy；　the　abbots　or
chiefs　of　monastic　congregations。
　　　　In　the　year　1550　these　two　assemblies　of　which　the　one　was　an
almost　complete　representation　of　the　higher　nobility　and
bureaucracy；　and　the　second　of　the　higher　clergy；　were　changed
into　a　more　democratic　parliament　by　the　addition　of
representatives　of　the　lower　nobility；　the　regular　military
force；　and　the　inhabitants　of　cities　and　rural　districts。　We　have
very　little　information　as　to　the　reason　which　induced　the
Government　to　appeal　to　these　〃men　of　the　people；〃　as　the　members
of　this　assembly　were　galled　by　contemporary　writers。　We　are
totally　ignorant　of　its　composition；　and　of　the　nature　of　the
business　it　was　called　upon　to　perform。　The　speech　which　Ivan　the
Terrible　delivered　in　its　first　session　is；　however；　well　known。
In　it　he　accuses　the　boyars　of　the　misgovernment　which
characterised　the　first　years　of　his　reign　and　throws　on　them　the
whole　responsibility　for　the　miseries　of　the　people。　He
acknowledged　at　the　same　time　the　impossibility　of　redressing　old
wrongs　by　judicial　means　and　entreated　all　classes　of　the　people
to　compound　for　them　by　means　of　compromises。　The　meaning　of　this
was　that　all　the　judges　who　were　accused　of　illegal　decisions；
and　officials　responsible　for　administrative　wrongs；　were
authorised　to　treat　within　a　fixed　time　directly　with　those　who
had　complained　to　the　Czar　of　their　misrule。　So　far　as　appears
from　later　documents　the　wish　of　the　Czar　was　complied　with　by
all　classes　of　the　people。　Vast　reforms　followed　this　first　essay
of　representative　assemblies；　the　principle　of　election；　which
had　formerly　prevailed　in　the　organisation　of　the　commune　and　the
lower　courts　of　justice；　was　reintroduced　in　the　form　of　elected
judges　and　aldermen　（goubnii　starosti　and　zelovalniki）。　It　is
very　probable　that　those　men　were　convened　to　the　first　Russian
parliament　who　had　acknowledged　the　necessity　for　such　reforms；
although　we　have　no　contemporary　documents　to　establish　this
fact。
　　　　The　amount　of　information　we　possess　about　the　second　Russian
parliament；　which　was　summoned　in　the　year　1566　is　much　greater。
We　know　the　number　of　persons　convened　to　it；　the　different
classes　of　the　people　to　which　they　belonged；　and　the　kind　of
business　they　had　to　perform。　We　may　even　guess　with　a　certain
degree　of　probability　the　way　in　which　they　exercised　their
consultative　and　deliberative　functions。　In　the　year　1558　the
Russian　military　forces　were　engaged　in　a　war　with　Poland。　This
war　had　its　rise　in　the　disputes　of　the　Teutonic　Knights　settled
in　Livonia；　with　the　growing　power　of　Russia。　Losing　one　after
another　their　chief　fortresses；　the　Order；　through　their　Grand
Master　Gotthard　Kettler；　entered　into　correspondence　with　the
Polish　king；　Sigismund；　and　proposed　to　accept　his　suzerainty　on
condition　that　he　should　with　his　army　oppose　the　further
encroachments　of　Russia。　This　offer　was　accepted；　and　Russia　had
to　decide　whether　she　should　withdraw　from　the　Livonian
strongholds　which　were　already　in　her　power　or　go　to　war　with
Poland。　Under　these　circumstances　Ivan　the　Terrible；　before
coming　to　a　decision；　wished　to　take　the　advice　not　only　of　the
higher　clergy；　the　members　of　his　Douma；　and　the　high　officers　of
State；　with　the　treasurers　and　secretaries　at　their　head。　but
also　of　the　lower　nobility；　the　class　directly　engaged　in
military　service；　and　those　of　the　third　estate；　whose　business
it　was　to　collect　the　taxes　from　the　urban　population。
　　　　If　we　scrutinise　the　composition　of　this　second　Russian
Parliament；　we　are　startled　by　the　fact　that　with　the　exception
of　three　gentlemen　from　Toropeczk；　six　from　Louczk；　and
twenty…two　citizens　from　the　city　of　Smolensk；　all　its　members
were　persons　residing　in　Moscow　Russian　historians　have　generally
explained　this　anomaly　by　saying　that　the　Government；　having　no
time　to　await　the　arrival　of　deputies　from　the　provinces；
contented　itself　with　consulting　such　military　men　as　were　then
present　at　Moscow；　exception　being　made　only　as　to　the
inhabitants　of　some　western　cities　and　districts　whose　interests
were　directly　engaged　in　the　impending　war。　Such　was　the　case
with　Smolensk；　Louczk；　and　Toropeczk。　If　this　was　so；　the
Assembly　of　1566　would　have　no　right　to　figure　in　the　list　of
Russian　Parliaments；　being　nothing　but　a　local　Assembly；
something　like　those　〃etats　generaux　fractionnes；〃　which　were
known　in　France　during　a　great　part　of　the　fourteenth　and
fifteenth　centuries。　But　such　is　not　really　the　case。（1*）　The　way
in　which　the　military　class　was　represented　at　the　Parliament　of
1566　finds　its　explanation　in　the　organisation　of　the　army　at
that　time。　It　was　then　composed　of　five　regiments；　quartered　in
different　provinces；　each　regiment　containing　a　greater　or
smaller　number　of　〃district　hundreds。〃　The　hundred　was　not　a
numerical；　but　a　local　division。　As　a　rule；　the　headship　of　every
hundred　was　entrusted；　not　to　a　local　military　man；　but　to　some
Moscovite　nobleman；　residing　in　the　metropolis；　but　possessing
estates　in　the　district　to　which　the　hundred　belonged。　Under　the
circumstances　I　have　described；　the　Czar；　before　going　into　the
new　war；　was　naturally　desirous　of　consulting　the　men　who　had　the
local　command　of　his　army；　those　Moscovite　noblemen　who　were
placed　at　the　head　of　the　local　hundreds。　Their　usual　place　of
abode　being　the　metropolis；　it　is　easy　to　understand　why
inhabitants　of　Moscow　were　almost　the　only　men　summoned　to　attend
the　Parliament。　When　the　Sobor　was　convened　the　army　had　just
returned　from　its　last　expedition　against　Lithuania　and　all　the
military　chiefs　would　then　be　in　Moscow。　These　chiefs；　as　has
been　already　mentioned；　were　paid　for　their　services　not　by　a
fixed　salary；　but　by　donations　of　land　granted　for　the　term　of
service；　which　practically　amounted　to　a　life　tenure；　and　were
known　by　the　name　of　pomestie。（2*）　The　quantity　of　land
corresponded　to　the　position　held　in　the　ranks　of　the　army。　Some
received　only　one　hundred　and　fifty　desiatin；（3*）　some　two
hundred　and　twenty…five；　some　even　three　hundred；　and　these
differences　led　to　the　division　of　the　military　classes　into
three　groups　called　statii。　The　Sobor　of　1566　contained
ninety…seven　members　from　the　first　class　and　ninety…nine　of　the
second；　among　the　lower　group　we　find　only　thirty…five　from
Toropeczk　and　six　from　Louzck。
　　　　As　to　the　third　estate；　it　was　represented　by　seventy…five
men；　all　belonging　to　the　Moscovite　trading　class。　The　reason　of
this　must　be　sought　in　the　contemporary　organisation　of　the
Russian　bourgeoisie。　During　the　second　part　of　the　sixteenth
century　we　find　in　Moscow　two　different　classes　of　tradesmen：　one
known　under　the　name　of　〃hosts〃　（gosti）；　the　other　under　that　of
〃merchants〃　（koupzi）。　Both　classes　contained　in　their　ranks　not
only　Moscovite　tradesmen；　but　also　tradesmen　from　other　cities。
The　wealthy　and　influential　merchants　of　the　whole　empire　were
inscribed　in　the　list　of　the　〃hosts；〃　the　rest　composed　that　of
the　〃merchants。〃　This　latter　class　was　sub…divided　into　Moscovite
and　Smolensk　merchants；　the　latter　being　those；　whose　commerce
was　chiefly　confined　to　the　western　provinces　of　Russia　and　its
natural　head　Smolensk。　In　the　sixteenth　century　these　same
sub…divisions　re…appear　under　somewhat　different　names；　the　one
being　called　the　hundred　of　〃hosts〃　（gostinnaia　sotnia）　and　the
other　the　hundred　of　〃drapers〃　（soukonnaia　sotnia）。　The　divisions
I　have　mentioned　were　the　work　of　the　central　government；　which
regarded　the　wealthier　merchants　as　its　direct　helpers　in　the
difficult　task　of　collecting　customs　and　excise　duties。
　　　　No　person　belonging　to　the　Guild　of　〃hosts〃　could　refuse　to
perform　these　heavy　and　responsible　duties。　The　man；　on　whom　the
choice　of　his　companions　fell；　was　obliged　to　remove　to　the　city
whose　taxes　he　had　to　collect。　So　that　the　exercise　of　such
functions　might　be　entrusted　to　persons　of　great　local　influence；
the　election　fell；　as　a　rule；　on　a　merchant　possessing　estates　or
large　stocks　of　merchandise　in　the　city　which　he　was　called　to
administer。　Like　the　guild　of　hosts；　the　guilds　of　Moscovite　and
Smolensk　merchants　were　called　upon　to　assist　the　Government　in
the　exercise　of　its　financial　authority　and　accordingly　elected
among　themselves　the　officers　of　the　excise　and　customs
administration　of　the　smaller　urban　districts。
　　　　It　is　easy　to　understand　that　before　engaging　in　a　new　war；
which　would　necessarily　cause　new　and　heavy　expenses；　the　Czar
would　desire　to　obtain　information　as　to　the　pecuniary　resources
of　the　country　from　those　persons　whose　duty　it　would　be　to
collect　the　taxes。　He；　therefore；　summoned　to　the　Sobor　the
tradesmen　of　the　Guild　of　hosts　and　also　the　Moscovite　and
Smolensk　merchants；　or；　in　other　words；　all　those　who　had　the
charge　of　collecting　the　revenues　of　indirect　taxation；　not　only
in　the　metropolis；　but　throughout　the　empire。　Composed　as　it　was
of　the　high　officials；　the　members　of　the　council；　the
archbishops；　bishops；　archimandrites；　abbots；　and　the　local　heads
of　the　military　and　financial　administration；　the　Sobor　of　1566
was　not　so　much　the　representative　of　the　people　as　of　the
governing　class。　It　is；　therefore；　difficult　to　speak　of　its
analogy　with　the　representative　assemblies　of　Western　Europe；
though　some　of　the　elements　of　which　it　was　composed；　are　to　be
found　both　in　the　Swedish　and　the　German　parliaments。　In　Sweden
the　army　was　called　upon　to　send　its　generals；　colonels；　and　even
its　majors　to　the　sittings；　at　least　from　1598　to　1778。（4*）　In
the　German　Landestande；　as　well　as　in　the　Swedish　States…General；
the　cities　were　regularly　represented　by　their　officers；　the
Rathmanner；　members　of　the　city　council；　or　Ratta　borgare；　as
they　were　called　in　Sweden；　just　as　the　French　cities　and
boroughs　were　usually　represented　in　the　Etats　Generaux；　not　by
elected　deputies；　but　by　their　maires；　echevins　and　consuls。（5*）
　　　　Now　that　we　are　acquainted　with　the　manner　in　which　the　first
Sobor；　this　real　assembly　of　notables；　was　composed；　let　us　take
a　look　at　its　proceedings。　The　question　on　which　the　Czar　wanted
advice　was　whether　he　should　engage　in　a　new　war　with　Poland；　or
whether　it　would　be　better　for　him　to　restore　to　Kasimir　the
cities　which　he　had　conquered　in　Lithuania。　Each　estate　had　to
give　a　separate　answer。　The　clergy　declared　itself　in　favour　of
war。　They　maintained　that　Livonia　had　always　belonged　to　Russia；
a