representative government-第10章

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ropeans。　The　Spaniards　pursued　all　their　great　men　with　it；　embittered　their　lives；　and　generally　succeeded　in　putting　an　early　stop　to　their　successes。*　With　the　French；　who　are　essentially　a　southern　people；　the　double　education　of　despotism　and　Catholicism　has；　in　spite　of　their　impulsive　temperament；　made　submission　and　endurance　the　common　character　of　the　people；　and　their　most　received　notion　of　wisdom　and　excellence：　and　if　envy　of　one　another；　and　of　all　superiority；　is　not　more　rife　among　them　than　it　is；　the　circumstance　must　be　ascribed　to　the　many　valuable　counteracting　elements　in　the　French　character；　and　most　of　all　to　the　great　individual　energy　which；　though　less　persistent　and　more　intermittent　than　in　the　self…helping　and　struggling　Anglo…Saxons；　has　nevertheless　manifested　itself　among　the　French　in　nearly　every　direction　in　which　the　operation　of　their　institutions　has　been　favourable　to　it。

　　*　I　limit　the　expression　to　past　time；　because　I　would　say　nothing　derogatory　of　a　great；　and　now　at　last　a　free；　people；　who　are　entering　into　the　general　movement　of　European　progress　with　a　vigour　which　bids　fair　to　make　up　rapidly　the　ground　they　have　lost。　No　one　can　doubt　what　Spanish　intellect　and　energy　are　capable　of；　and　their　faults　as　a　people　are　chiefly　those　for　which　freedom　and　industrial　ardour　are　a　real　specific。

　　There　are；　no　doubt；　in　all　countries；　really　contented　characters；　who　not　merely　do　not　seek；　but　do　not　desire；　what　they　do　not　already　possess；　and　these　naturally　bear　no　ill…will　towards　such　as　have　apparently　a　more　favoured　lot。　But　the　great　mass　of　seeming　contentment　is　real　discontent；　combined　with　indolence　or　self…indulgence；　which；　while　taking　no　legitimate　means　of　raising　itself；　delights　in　bringing　others　down　to　its　own　level。　And　if　we　look　narrowly　even　at　the　cases　of　innocent　contentment；　we　perceive　that　they　only　win　our　admiration　when　the　indifference　is　solely　to　improvement　in　outward　circumstances；　and　there　is　a　striving　for　perpetual　advancement　in　spiritual　worth；　or　at　least　a　disinterested　zeal　to　benefit　others。　The　contented　man；　or　the　contented　family；　who　have　no　ambition　to　make　any　one　else　happier；　to　promote　the　good　of　their　country　or　their　neighbourhood；　or　to　improve　themselves　in　moral　excellence；　excite　in　us　neither　admiration　nor　approval。　We　rightly　ascribe　this　sort　of　contentment　to　mere　unmanliness　and　want　of　spirit。　The　content　which　we　approve　is　an　ability　to　do　cheerfully　without　what　cannot　be　had；　a　just　appreciation　of　the　comparative　value　of　different　objects　of　desire；　and　a　willing　renunciation　of　the　less　when　incompatible　with　the　greater。　These；　however；　are　excellences　more　natural　to　the　character；　in　proportion　as　it　is　actively　engaged　in　the　attempt　to　improve　its　own　or　some　other　lot。　He　who　is　continually　measuring　his　energy　against　difficulties　learns　what　are　the　difficulties　insuperable　to　him；　and　what　are　those　which；　though　he　might　overcome；　the　success　is　not　worth　the　cost。　He　whose　thoughts　and　activities　are　all　needed　for；　and　habitually　employed　in；　practicable　and　useful　enterprises；　is　the　person　of　all　others　least　likely　to　let　his　mind　dwell　with　brooding　discontent　upon　things　either　not　worth　attaining；　or　which　are　not　so　to　him。　Thus　the　active；　self…helping　character　is　not　only　intrinsically　the　best；　but　is　the　likeliest　to　acquire　all　that　is　really　excellent　or　desirable　in　the　opposite　type。　　　The　striving；　go…ahead　character　of　England　and　the　United　States　is　only　a　fit　subject　of　disapproving　criticism　on　account　of　the　very　secondary　objects　on　which　it　commonly　expends　its　strength。　In　itself　it　is　the　foundation　of　the　best　hopes　for　the　general　improvement　of　mankind。　It　has　been　acutely　remarked　that　whenever　anything　goes　amiss　the　habitual　impulse　of　French　people　is　to　say；　〃ll　faut　de　la　patience〃；　and　of　English　people；　〃What　a　shame。〃　The　people　who　think　it　a　shame　when　anything　goes　wrong…　who　rush　to　the　conclusion　that　the　evil　could　and　ought　to　have　been　prevented；　are　those　who；　in　the　long　run；　do　most　to　make　the　world　better。　If　the　desires　are　low　placed；　if　they　extend　to　little　beyond　physical　comfort；　and　the　show　of　riches；　the　immediate　results　of　the　energy　will　not　be　much　more　than　the　continual　extension　of　man's　power　over　material　objects；　but　even　this　makes　room；　and　prepares　the　mechanical　appliances；　for　the　greatest　intellectual　and　social　achievements；　and　while　the　energy　is　there；　some　persons　will　apply　it；　and　it　will　be　applied　more　and　more；　to　the　perfecting　not　of　outward　circumstances　alone；　but　of　man's　inward　nature。　Inactivity；　unaspiringness；　absence　of　desire；　are　a　more　fatal　hindrance　to　improvement　than　any　misdirection　of　energy；　and　are　that　through　which　alone；　when　existing　in　the　mass；　any　very　formidable　misdirection　by　an　energetic　few　becomes　possible。　It　is　this；　mainly；　which　retains　in　a　savage　or　semi…savage　state　the　great　majority　of　the　human　race。　　　Now　there　can　be　no　kind　of　doubt　that　the　passive　type　of　character　is　favoured　by　the　government　of　one　or　a　few；　and　the　active　self…helping　type　by　that　of　the　Many。　Irresponsible　rulers　need　the　quiescence　of　the　ruled　more　than　they　need　any　activity　but　that　which　they　can　compel。　Submissiveness　to　the　prescriptions　of　men　as　necessities　of　nature　is　the　lesson　inculcated　by　all　governments　upon　those　who　are　wholly　without　participation　in　them。　The　will　of　superiors；　and　the　law　as　the　will　of　superiors；　must　be　passively　yielded　to。　But　no　men　are　mere　instruments　or　materials　in　the　hands　of　their　rulers　who　have　will　or　spirit　or　a　spring　of　internal　activity　in　the　rest　of　their　proceedings：　and　any　manifestation　of　these　qualities；　instead　of　receiving　encouragement　from　despots；　has　to　get　itself　forgiven　by　them。　Even　when　irresponsible　rulers　are　not　sufficiently　conscious　of　danger　from　the　mental　activity　of　their　subjects　to　be　desirous　of　repressing　it；　the　position　itself　is　a　repression。　Endeavour　is　even　more　effectually　restrained　by　the　certainty　of　its　impotence　than　by　any　positive　discouragement。　Between　subjection　to　the　will　of　others；　and　the　virtues　of　self…help　and　self…government；　there　is　a　natural　incompatibility。　This　is　more　or　less　complete；　according　as　the　bondage　is　strained　or　relaxed。　Rulers　differ　very　much　in　the　length　to　which　they　carry　the　control　of　the　free　agency　of　their　subjects；　or　the　supersession　of　it　by　managing　their　business　for　them。　But　the　difference　is　in　degree；　not　in　principle；　and　the　best　despots　often　go　the　greatest　lengths　in　chaining　up　the　free　agency　of　their　subjects。　A　bad　despot；　when　his　own　personal　indulgences　have　been　provided　for；　may　sometimes　be　willing　to　let　the　people　alone；　but　a　good　despot　insists　on　doing　them　good；　by　making　them　do　their　own　business　in　a　better　way　than　they　themselves　know　of。　The　regulations　which　restricted　to　fixed　processes　all　the　leading　branches　of　French　manufactures　were　the　work　of　the　great　Colbert。　　　Very　different　is　the　state　of　the　human　faculties　where　a　human　being　feels　himself　under　no　other　external　restraint　than　the　necessities　of　nature；　or　mandates　of　society　which　he　has　his　share　in　imposing；　and　which　it　is　open　to　him；　if　he　thinks　them　wrong；　publicly　to　dissent　from；　and　exert　himself　actively　to　get　altered。　No　doubt；　under　a　government　partially　popular；　this　freedom　may　be　exercised　even　by　those　who　are　not　partakers　in　the　full　privileges　of　citizenship。　But　it　is　a　great　additional　stimulus　to　any　one's　self…help　and　self…reliance　when　he　starts　from　even　ground；　and　has　not　to　feel　that　his　success　depends　on　the　impression　he　can　make　upon　the　sentiments　and　dispositions　of　a　body　of　whom　he　is　not　one。　It　is　a　great　discouragement　to　an　individual；　and　a　still　greater　one　to　a　class；　to　be　left　out　of　the　constitution；　to　be　reduced　to　plead　from　outside　the　door　to　the　arbiters　of　their　destiny；　not　taken　into　consultation　within。　The　maximum　of　the　invigorating　effect　of　freedom　upon　the　character　is　only　obtained　when　the　person　acted　on　either　is；　or　is　looking　forward　to　becoming；　a　citizen　as　fully　privileged　as　any　other。　　　What　is　still　more　important　than　even　this　matter　of　feeling　is　the　practical　discipline　which　the　character　obtains　from　the　occasional　demand　made　upon　the　citizens　to　exercise；　for　a　time　and　in　their　turn；　some　social　function。　It　is　not　sufficiently　considered　how　little　there　is　in　most　men's　ordinary　life　to　give　any　largeness　either　to　their　conceptions　or　to　their　sentiments。　Their　work　is　a　routine；　not　a　labour　of　love；　but　of　self…interest　in　the　most　elementary　form；　the　satisfaction　of　daily　wants；　neither　the　thing　done；　nor　the　process　of　doing　it；　introduces　the　mind　to　thoughts　or　feelings　extending　beyond　individuals；　if　instructive　books　are　within　their　reach；　there　is　no　stimulus　to　read　them；　and　in　most　cases　the　individual　has　no　access　to　any　person　of　cultivation　much　superior　to　his　own。　Giving　him　something　to　do　for　the　public；　supplies；　in　a　measure；　all　these　deficiencies。　If　circumstances　allow　the　amount　of　public　duty　assigned　him　to　be　considerable；　it　makes　him　an　educated　man。　Notwithstanding　the　defects　of　the　social　system　and　moral　ideas　of　antiquity；　the　practice　of　the　dicastery　and　the　ecclesia　raised　the　intellectual　standard　of　an　average　Athenian　citizen　far　beyond　anything　of　which　there　is　yet　an　example　in　any　other　mass　of　men；　ancient　or　modern。　The　proofs　of　this　are　apparent　in　every　page　of　our　great　historian　of　Greece；　but　we　need　scarcely　look　further　than　to　the　high　quality　of　the　addresses　which　their　great　orators　deemed　best　calculated　to　act　with　effect　on　their　understanding　and　will。　A　benefit　of　the　same　kind；　though　far　less　in　degree；　is　produced　on　Englishmen　of　the　lower　middle　class　by　their　liability　to　be　placed　on　juries　and　to　serve　parish　offices；　which；　though　it　does　not　occur　to　so　many；　nor　is　so　continuous；　nor　introduces　them　to　so　great　a　variety　of　elevated　considerations；　as　to　admit　of　comparison　with　the　public　education　which　every　citizen　of　Athens　obtained　from　her　democratic　institutions；　must　make　them　nevertheless　very　different　beings；　in　range　of　ideas　and　development　of　faculties；　from　those　who　have　done　nothing　in　their　lives　but　drive　a　quill；　or　sell　goods　over　a　counter。　　　Still　more　salutary　is　the　moral　part　of　the　instruction　afforded　by　the　participation　of　the　private　citizen；　if　even　rarely；　in　public　functions。　He　is　called　upon；　while　so　engaged；　to　weigh　interests　not　his　own；　to　be　guided；　in　case　of　conflicting　claims；　by　another　rule　than　his　private　partialities；　to　apply；　at　every　turn；　principles　and　maxims　which　have　for　their　reason　of　existence　the　common　good：　and　he　usually　finds　associated　with　him　in　the　same　work　minds　more　familiarised　than　his　own　with　these　ideas　and　operations；　whose　study　it　will　be　to　supply　reasons　to　his　understanding；　and　stimulation　to　his　feeling　for　the　general　interest。　He　is　made　to　feel　himself　one　of　the　public；　and　whatever　is　for　their　benefit　to　be　for　his　benefit。　Where　this　school　of　public　spirit　does　not　exist；　scarcely　any　sen