representative government-第38章

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on　of　functionaries　should　correspond　to　that　of　subjects；　and　that　there　should　not　be　several　departments　independent　of　one　another　to　superintend　different　parts　of　the　same　natural　whole；　as　in　our　own　military　administration　down　to　a　recent　period；　and　in　a　less　degree　even　at　present。　Where　the　object　to　be　attained　is　single　（such　as　that　of　having　an　efficient　army）；　the　authority　commissioned　to　attend　to　it　should　be　single　likewise。　The　entire　aggregate　of　means　provided　for　one　end　should　be　under　one　and　the　same　control　and　responsibility。　If　they　are　divided　among　independent　authorities；　the　means；　with　each　of　those　authorities；　become　ends；　and　it　is　the　business　of　nobody　except　the　head　of　the　Government；　who　is　probably　without　the　appropriate　departmental　experience；　to　take　care　of　the　real　end。　The　different　classes　of　means　are　not　combined　and　adapted　to　one　another　under　the　guidance　of　any　leading　idea；　and　while　every　department　pushes　forward　its　own　requirements；　regardless　of　those　of　the　rest；　the　purpose　of　the　work　is　perpetually　sacrificed　to　the　work　itself。　　　As　a　general　rule；　every　executive　function；　whether　superior　or　subordinate；　should　be　the　appointed　duty　of　some　given　individual。　It　should　be　apparent　to　all　the　world　who　did　everything；　and　through　whose　default　anything　was　left　undone。　Responsibility　is　null　when　nobody　knows　who　is　responsible。　Nor；　even　when　real；　can　it　be　divided　without　being　weakened。　To　maintain　it　at　its　highest　there　must　be　one　person　who　receives　the　whole　praise　of　what　is　well　done；　the　whole　blame　of　what　is　ill。　There　are；　however；　two　modes　of　sharing　responsibility：　by　one　it　is　only　enfeebled；　by　the　other；　absolutely　destroyed。　It　is　enfeebled　when　the　concurrence　of　more　than　one　functionary　is　required　to　the　same　act。　Each　one　among　them　has　still　a　real　responsibility；　if　a　wrong　has　been　done；　none　of　them　can　say　he　did　not　do　it；　he　is　as　much　a　participant　as　an　accomplice　is　in　an　offence：　if　there　has　been　legal　criminality　they　may　all　be　punished　legally；　and　their　punishment　needs　not　be　less　severe　than　if　there　had　been　only　one　person　concerned。　But　it　is　not　so　with　the　penalties；　any　more　than　with　the　rewards；　of　opinion：　these　are　always　diminished　by　being　shared。　Where　there　has　been　no　definite　legal　offence；　no　corruption　or　malversation；　only　an　error　or　an　imprudence；　or　what　may　pass　for　such；　every　participator　has　an　excuse　to　himself　and　to　the　world；　in　the　fact　that　other　persons　are　jointly　involved　with　him。　There　is　hardly　anything；　even　to　pecuniary　dishonesty；　for　which　men　will　not　feel　themselves　almost　absolved；　if　those　whose　duty　it　was　to　resist　and　remonstrate　have　failed　to　do　it；　still　more　if　they　have　given　a　formal　assent。　　　In　this　case；　however；　though　responsibility　is　weakened；　there　still　is　responsibility：　every　one　of　those　implicated　has　in　his　individual　capacity　assented　to；　and　joined　in；　the　act。　Things　are　much　worse　when　the　act　itself　is　only　that　of　a　majority…　a　Board；　deliberating　with　closed　doors；　nobody　knowing；　or；　except　in　some　extreme　case；　being　ever　likely　to　know；　whether　an　individual　member　voted　for　the　act　or　against　it。　Responsibility　in　this　case　is　a　mere　name。　〃Boards；〃　it　is　happily　said　by　Bentham；　〃are　screens。〃　What　〃the　Board〃　does　is　the　act　of　nobody；　and　nobody　can　be　made　to　answer　for　it。　The　Board　suffers；　even　in　reputation；　only　in　its　collective　character；　and　no　individual　member　feels　this　further　than　his　disposition　leads　him　to　identify　his　own　estimation　with　that　of　the　body…　a　feeling　often　very　strong　when　the　body　is　a　permanent　one；　and　he　is　wedded　to　it　for　better　for　worse；　but　the　fluctuations　of　a　modern　official　career　give　no　time　for　the　formation　of　such　an　esprit　de　corps；　which　if　it　exists　at　all；　exists　only　in　the　obscure　ranks　of　the　permanent　subordinates。　Boards；　therefore；　are　not　a　fit　instrument　for　executive　business；　and　are　only　admissible　in　it　when；　for　other　reasons；　to　give　full　discretionary　power　to　a　single　minister　would　be　worse。　　　On　the　other　hand；　it　is　also　a　maxim　of　experience　that　in　the　multitude　of　counsellors　there　is　wisdom；　and　that　a　man　seldom　judges　right；　even　in　his　own　concerns；　still　less　in　those　of　the　public；　when　he　makes　habitual　use　of　no　knowledge　but　his　own；　or　that　of　some　single　adviser。　There　is　no　necessary　incompatibility　between　this　principle　and　the　other。　It　is　easy　to　give　the　effective　power；　and　the　full　responsibility；　to　one；　providing　him　when　necessary　with　advisers；　each　of　whom　is　responsible　only　for　the　opinion　he　gives。　　　In　general；　the　head　of　a　department　of　the　executive　government　is　a　mere　politician。　He　may　be　a　good　politician；　and　a　man　of　merit；　and　unless　this　is　usually　the　case；　the　government　is　bad。　But　his　general　capacity；　and　the　knowledge　he　ought　to　possess　of　the　general　interests　of　the　country；　will　not；　unless　by　occasional　accident；　be　accompanied　by　adequate；　and　what　may　be　called　professional；　knowledge　of　the　department　over　which　he　is　called　to　preside。　Professional　advisers　must　therefore　be　provided　for　him。　Wherever　mere　experience　and　attainments　are　sufficient　wherever　the　qualities　required　in　a　professional　adviser　may　possibly　be　united　in　a　single　well…selected　individual　（as　in　the　case；　for　example；　of　a　law　officer）；　one　such　person　for　general　purposes；　and　a　staff　of　clerks　to　supply　knowledge　of　details；　meet　the　demands　of　the　case。　But；　more　frequently；　it　is　not　sufficient　that　the　minister　should　consult　some　one　competent　person；　and；　when　himself　not　conversant　with　the　subject；　act　implicitly　on　that　person's　advice。　It　is　often　necessary　that　he　should；　not　only　occasionally　but　habitually；　listen　to　a　variety　of　opinions；　and　inform　his　judgment　by　the　discussions　among　a　body　of　advisers。　This；　for　example；　is　emphatically　necessary　in　military　and　naval　affairs。　The　military　and　naval　ministers；　therefore；　and　probably　several　others；　should　be　provided　with　a　Council；　composed；　at　least　in　those　two　departments；　of　able　and　experienced　professional　men。　As　a　means　of　obtaining　the　best　men　for　the　purpose　under　every　change　of　administration；　they　ought　to　be　permanent：　by　which　I　mean；　that　they　ought　not；　like　the　Lords　of　the　Admiralty；　to　be　expected　to　resign　with　the　ministry　by　whom　they　were　appointed：　but　it　is　a　good　rule　that　all　who　hold　high　appointments　to　which　they　have　risen　by　selection；　and　not　by　the　ordinary　course　of　promotion；　should　retain　their　office　only　for　a　fixed　term；　unless　reappointed；　as　is　now　the　rule　with　Staff　appointments　in　the　British　army。　This　rule　renders　appointments　somewhat　less　likely　to　be　jobbed；　not　being　a　provision　for　life；　and　the　same　time　affords　a　means；　without　affront　to　any　one；　of　getting　rid　of　those　who　are　least　worth　keeping；　and　bringing　in　highly　qualified　persons　of　younger　standing；　for　whom　there　might　never　be　room　if　death　vacancies；　or　voluntary　resignations；　were　waited　for。　　　The　Councils　should　be　consultative　merely；　in　this　sense；　that　the　ultimate　decision　should　rest　undividedly　with　the　minister　himself：　but　neither　ought　they　to　be　looked　upon；　or　to　look　upon　themselves；　as　ciphers；　or　as　capable　of　being　reduced　to　such　at　his　pleasure。　The　advisers　attached　to　a　powerful　and　perhaps　self…willed　man　ought　to　be　placed　under　conditions　which　make　it　impossible　for　them；　without　discredit；　not　to　express　an　opinion；　and　impossible　for　him　not　to　listen　to　and　consider　their　recommendations；　whether　he　adopts　them　or　not。　The　relation　which　ought　to　exist　between　a　chief　and　this　description　of　advisers　is　very　accurately　hit　by　the　constitution　of　the　Council　of　the　Governor…General　and　those　of　the　different　Presidencies　in　India。　These　Councils　are　composed　of　persons　who　have　professional　knowledge　of　Indian　affairs；　which　the　Governor…General　and　Governors　usually　lack；　and　which　it　would　not　be　desirable　to　require　of　them。　As　a　rule；　every　member　of　Council　is　expected　to　give　an　opinion；　which　is　of　course　very　often　a　simple　acquiescence：　but　if　there　is　a　difference　of　sentiment；　it　is　at　the　option　of　every　member；　and　is　the　invariable　practice；　to　record　the　reasons　of　his　opinion：　the　Governor…General；　or　Governor；　doing　the　same。　In　ordinary　cases　the　decision　is　according　to　the　sense　of　the　majority；　the　Council；　therefore；　has　a　substantial　part　in　the　government：　but　if　the　Governor…General；　or　Governor；　thinks　fit；　he　may　set　aside　even　their　unanimous　opinion；　recording　his　reasons。　The　result　is；　that　the　chief　is　individually　and　effectively　responsible　for　every　act　of　the　Government。　The　members　of　Council　have　only　the　responsibility　of　advisers；　but　it　is　always　known；　from　documents　capable　of　being　produced；　and　which　if　called　for　by　Parliament　or　public　opinion　always　are　produced；　what　each　has　advised；　and　what　reasons　he　gave　for　his　advice：　while；　from　their　dignified　position；　and　ostensible　participation　in　all　acts　of　government；　they　have　nearly　as　strong　motives　to　apply　themselves　to　the　public　business；　and　to　form　and　express　a　well…considered　opinion　on　every　part　of　it；　as　if　the　whole　responsibility　rested　with　themselves。　　　This　mode　of　conducting　the　highest　class　of　administrative　business　is　one　of　the　most　successful　instances　of　the　adaptation　of　means　to　ends　which　political　history；　not　hitherto　very　prolific　in　works　of　skill　and　contrivance；　has　yet　to　show。　It　is　one　of　the　acquisitions　with　which　the　art　of　politics　has　been　enriched　by　the　experience　of　the　East　India　Company's　rule；　and；　like　most　of　the　other　wise　contrivances　by　which　India　has　been　preserved　to　this　country；　and　an　amount　of　good　government　produced　which　is　truly　wonderful　considering　the　circumstances　and　the　materials；　it　is　probably　destined　to　perish　in　the　general　holocaust　which　the　traditions　of　Indian　government　seem　fated　to　undergo；　since　they　have　been　placed　at　the　mercy　of　public　ignorance；　and　the　presumptuous　vanity　of　political　men。　Already　an　outcry　is　raised　for　abolishing　the　Councils；　as　a　superfluous　and　expensive　clog　on　the　wheels　of　government：　while　the　clamour　has　long　been　urgent；　and　is　daily　obtaining　more　countenance　in　the　highest　quarters；　for　the　abrogation　of　the　professional　civil　service　which　breeds　the　men　that　compose　the　Councils；　and　the　existence　of　which　is　the　sole　guarantee　for　their　being　of　any　value。

　　A　most　important　principle　of　good　government　in　a　popular　constitution　is　that　no　executive　functionaries　should　be　appointed　by　popular　election：　neither　by　the　votes　of　the　people　themselves；　nor　by　those　of　their　representatives。　The　entire　business　of　government　is　skilled　employment；　the　qualifications　for　the　discharge　of　it　are　of　that　special　and　professional　kind　which　cannot　be　properly　judged　of　except　by　persons　who　have　themselves　some　share　of　those　qualifications；　or　some　practical　experience　of　them。　The　business　of　finding　the　fittest　persons　to　fill　public　employments…　not　merely　selecting　the　best　who　offer；　but　looking　out　for　the　absolutely　best；　and　taking　note　of　all　fit　persons　who　are　met　with；　that　they　may　be　found　when　wanted…　i