representative government-第5章

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；　but　they　are　liable　to　wander　from　it　in　opposite　directions。　This　consideration　is　of　importance　in　composing　the　personnel　of　any　political　body：　persons　of　both　types　ought　to　be　included　in　it；　that　the　tendencies　of　each　may　be　tempered；　in　so　far　as　they　are　excessive；　by　a　due　proportion　of　the　other。　There　needs　no　express　provision　to　ensure　this　object；　provided　care　is　taken　to　admit　nothing　inconsistent　with　it。　The　natural　and　spontaneous　admixture　of　the　old　and　the　young；　of　those　whose　position　and　reputation　are　made　and　those　who　have　them　still　to　make；　will　in　general　sufficiently　answer　the　purpose；　if　only　this　natural　balance　is　not　disturbed　by　artificial　regulation。

　　Since　the　distinction　most　commonly　adopted　for　the　classification　of　social　exigencies　does　not　possess　the　properties　needful　for　that　use；　we　have　to　seek　for　some　other　leading　distinction　better　adapted　to　the　purpose。　Such　a　distinction　would　seem　to　be　indicated　by　the　considerations　to　which　I　now　proceed。　　　If　we　ask　ourselves　on　what　causes　and　conditions　good　government　in　all　its　senses；　from　the　humblest　to　the　most　exalted；　depends；　we　find　that　the　principal　of　them；　the　one　which　transcends　all　others；　is　the　qualities　of　the　human　beings　composing　the　society　over　which　the　government　is　exercised。　　　We　may　take；　as　a　first　instance；　the　administration　of　justice；　with　the　more　propriety；　since　there　is　no　part　of　public　business　in　which　the　mere　machinery；　the　rules　and　contrivances　for　conducting　the　details　of　the　operation；　are　of　such　vital　consequence。　Yet　even　these　yield　in　importance　to　the　qualities　of　the　human　agents　employed。　Of　what　efficacy　are　rules　of　procedure　in　securing　the　ends　of　justice；　if　the　moral　condition　of　the　people　is　such　that　the　witnesses　generally　lie；　and　the　judges　and　their　subordinates　take　bribes？　Again；　how　can　institutions　provide　a　good　municipal　administration　if　there　exists　such　indifference　to　the　subject　that　those　who　would　administer　honestly　and　capably　cannot　be　induced　to　serve；　and　the　duties　are　left　to　those　who　undertake　them　because　they　have　some　private　interest　to　be　promoted？　Of　what　avail　is　the　most　broadly　popular　representative　system　if　the　electors　do　not　care　to　choose　the　best　member　of　parliament；　but　choose　him　who　will　spend　most　money　to　be　elected？　How　can　a　representative　assembly　work　for　good　if　its　members　can　be　bought；　or　if　their　excitability　of　temperament；　uncorrected　by　public　discipline　or　private　self…control；　makes　them　incapable　of　calm　deliberation；　and　they　resort　to　manual　violence　on　the　floor　of　the　House；　or　shoot　at　one　another　with　rifles？　How；　again；　can　government；　or　any　joint　concern；　be　carried　on　in　a　tolerable　manner　by　people　so　envious　that；　if　one　among　them　seems　likely　to　succeed　in　anything；　those　who　ought　to　cooperate　with　him　form　a　tacit　combination　to　make　him　fail？　Whenever　the　general　disposition　of　the　people　is　such　that　each　individual　regards　those　only　of　his　interests　which　are　selfish；　and　does　not　dwell　on；　or　concern　himself　for；　his　share　of　the　general　interest；　in　such　a　state　of　things　good　government　is　impossible。　The　influence　of　defects　of　intelligence　in　obstructing　all　the　elements　of　good　government　requires　no　illustration。　Government　consists　of　acts　done　by　human　beings；　and　if　the　agents；　or　those　who　choose　the　agents；　or　those　to　whom　the　agents　are　responsible；　or　the　lookers…on　whose　opinion　ought　to　influence　and　check　all　these；　are　mere　masses　of　ignorance；　stupidity；　and　baleful　prejudice；　every　operation　of　government　will　go　wrong；　while；　in　proportion　as　the　men　rise　above　this　standard；　so　will　the　government　improve　in　quality；　up　to　the　point　of　excellence；　attainable　but　nowhere　attained；　where　the　officers　of　government；　themselves　persons　of　superior　virtue　and　intellect；　are　surrounded　by　the　atmosphere　of　a　virtuous　and　enlightened　public　opinion。　　　The　first　element　of　good　government；　therefore；　being　the　virtue　and　intelligence　of　the　human　beings　composing　the　community；　the　most　important　point　of　excellence　which　any　form　of　government　can　possess　is　to　promote　the　virtue　and　intelligence　of　the　people　themselves。　The　first　question　in　respect　to　any　political　institutions　is；　how　far　they　tend　to　foster　in　the　members　of　the　community　the　various　desirable　qualities；　moral　and　intellectual；　or　rather　（following　Bentham's　more　complete　classification）　moral；　intellectual；　and　active。　The　government　which　does　this　the　best　has　every　likelihood　of　being　the　best　in　all　other　respects；　since　it　is　on　these　qualities；　so　far　as　they　exist　in　the　people；　that　all　possibility　of　goodness　in　the　practical　operations　of　the　government　depends。　　　We　may　consider；　then；　as　one　criterion　of　the　goodness　of　a　government；　the　degree　in　which　it　tends　to　increase　the　sum　of　good　qualities　in　the　governed；　collectively　and　individually；　since；　besides　that　their　well…being　is　the　sole　object　of　government；　their　good　qualities　supply　the　moving　force　which　works　the　machinery。　This　leaves；　as　the　other　constituent　element　of　the　merit　of　a　government；　the　quality　of　the　machinery　itself；　that　is；　the　degree　in　which　it　is　adapted　to　take　advantage　of　the　amount　of　good　qualities　which　may　at　any　time　exist；　and　make　them　instrumental　to　the　right　purposes。　Let　us　again　take　the　subject　of　judicature　as　an　example　and　illustration。　The　judicial　system　being　given；　the　goodness　of　the　administration　of　justice　is　in　the　compound　ratio　of　the　worth　of　the　men　composing　the　tribunals；　and　the　worth　of　the　public　opinion　which　influences　or　controls　them。　But　all　the　difference　between　a　good　and　a　bad　system　of　judicature　lies　in　the　contrivances　adopted　for　bringing　whatever　moral　and　intellectual　worth　exists　in　the　community　to　bear　upon　the　administration　of　justice；　and　making　it　duly　operative　on　the　result。　The　arrangements　for　rendering　the　choice　of　the　judges　such　as　to　obtain　the　highest　average　of　virtue　and　intelligence；　the　salutary　forms　of　procedure；　the　publicity　which　allows　observation　and　criticism　of　whatever　is　amiss；　the　liberty　of　discussion　and　censure　through　the　press；　the　mode　of　taking　evidence；　according　as　it　is　well　or　ill　adapted　to　elicit　truth；　the　facilities；　whatever　be　their　amount；　for　obtaining　access　to　the　tribunals；　the　arrangements　for　detecting　crimes　and　apprehending　offenders；…　all

these　things　are　not　the　power；　but　the　machinery　for　bringing　the　power　into　contact　with　the　obstacle：　and　the　machinery　has　no　action　of　itself；　but　without　it　the　power；　let　it　be　ever　so　ample；　would　be　wasted　and　of　no　effect。　　　A　similar　distinction　exists　in　regard　to　the　constitution　of　the　executive　departments　of　administration。　Their　machinery　is　good；　when　the　proper　tests　are　prescribed　for　the　qualifications　of　officers；　the　proper　rules　for　their　promotion；　when　the　business　is　conveniently　distributed　among　those　who　are　to　transact　it；　a　convenient　and　methodical　order　established　for　its　transaction；　a　correct　and　intelligible　record　kept　of　it　after　being　transacted；　when　each　individual　knows　for　what　he　is　responsible；　and　is　known　to　others　as　responsible　for　it；　when　the　best…contrived　checks　are　provided　against　negligence；　favouritism；　or　jobbery；　in　any　of　the　acts　of　the　department。　But　political　checks　will　no　more　act　of　themselves　than　a　bridle　will　direct　a　horse　without　a　rider。　If　the　checking　functionaries　are　as　corrupt　or　as　negligent　as　those　whom　they　ought　to　check；　and　if　the　public；　the　mainspring　of　the　whole　checking　machinery；　are　too　ignorant；　too　passive；　or　too　careless　and　inattentive；　to　do　their　part；　little　benefit　will　be　derived　from　the　best　administrative　apparatus。　Yet　a　good　apparatus　is　always　preferable　to　a　bad。　It　enables　such　insufficient　moving　or　checking　power　as　exists　to　act　at　the　greatest　advantage；　and　without　it；　no　amount　of　moving　or　checking　power　would　be　sufficient。　Publicity；　for　instance；　is　no　impediment　to　evil　nor　stimulus　to　good　if　the　public　will　not　look　at　what　is　done；　but　without　publicity；　how　could　they　either　check　or　encourage　what　they　were　not　permitted　to　see？　The　ideally　perfect　constitution　of　a　public　office　is　that　in　which　the　interest　of　the　functionary　is　entirely　coincident　with　his　duty。　No　mere　system　will　make　it　so；　but　still　less　can　it　be　made　so　without　a　system；　aptly　devised　for　the　purpose。　　　What　we　have　said　of　the　arrangements　for　the　detailed　administration　of　the　government　is　still　more　evidently　true　of　its　general　constitution。　All　government　which　aims　at　being　good　is　an　organisation　of　some　part　of　the　good　qualities　existing　in　the　individual　members　of　the　community　for　the　conduct　of　its　collective　affairs。　A　representative　constitution　is　a　means　of　bringing　the　general　standard　of　intelligence　and　honesty　existing　in　the　community；　and　the　individual　intellect　and　virtue　of　its　wisest　members；　more　directly　to　bear　upon　the　government；　and　investing　them　with　greater　influence　in　it；　than　they　would　in　general　have　under　any　other　mode　of　organisation；　though；　under　any；　such　influence　as　they　do　have　is　the　source　of　all　good　that　there　is　in　the　government；　and　the　hindrance　of　every　evil　that　there　is　not。　The　greater　the　amount　of　these　good　qualities　which　the　institutions　of　a　country　succeed　in　organising；　and　the　better　the　mode　of　organisation；　the　better　will　be　the　government。　　　We　have　now；　therefore；　obtained　a　foundation　for　a　twofold　division　of　the　merit　which　any　set　of　political　institutions　can　possess。　It　consists　partly　of　the　degree　in　which　they　promote　the　general　mental　advancement　of　the　community；　including　under　that　phrase　advancement　in　intellect；　in　virtue；　and　in　practical　activity　and　efficiency；　and　partly　of　the　degree　of　perfection　with　which　they　organise　the　moral；　intellectual；　and　active　worth　already　existing；　so　as　to　operate　with　the　greatest　effect　on　public　affairs。　A　government　is　to　be　judged　by　its　action　upon　men；　and　by　its　action　upon　things；　by　what　it　makes　of　the　citizens；　and　what　it　does　with　them；　its　tendency　to　improve　or　deteriorate　the　people　themselves；　and　the　goodness　or　badness　of　the　work　it　performs　for　them；　and　by　means　of　them。　Government　is　at　once　a　great　influence　acting　on　the　human　mind；　and　a　set　of　organised　arrangements　for　public　business：　in　the　first　capacity　its　beneficial　action　is　chiefly　indirect；　but　not　therefore　less　vital；　while　its　mischievous　action　may　be　direct。　　　The　difference　between　these　two　functions　of　a　government　is　not；　like　that　between　Order　and　Progress；　a　difference　merely　in　degree；　but　in　kind。　We　must　not；　however；　suppose　that　they　have　no　intimate　connection　with　one　another。　The　institutions　which　ensure　the　best　management　of　public　affairs　practicable　in　the　existing　state　of　cultivation　tend　by　this　alone　to　the　further　improvement　of　that　state。　A　people　which　had　the　most　just　laws；　the　purest　and　most　efficient　judicature；　the　most　enlightened　administration；　the　most　equitable　and　least　onerous　system　of　finance；　compatible　with　the　stage　it　had　attained　in　moral　and　intellectual　advancement；　would　be　in　a　fair　way　to